t  :«essuoBSUtuc; 


r 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 


LIBRARY 


UN 
C 


■  '  r  OP 
SAN  DIEGO 


•y^y^^' 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •  BOSTON  •  CHICAGO  ■  DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •  BOMBAY   •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Domestic  Architecture 


BY 
L.  EUGENE  ROBINSON,  A.  A.  I.  A. 

B.   S.   IN  ARCHITECTURE,   UNIVERSITY  OF   PENNSYLVANIA;  LICENSED 

ARCHITECT   OF   ILLINOIS;    ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   RURAL 

ARCHITECTURE,   OREGON    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1917 

All  rithts  reserved 


Copyright,  1917 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  elcctrotyped.     Published  April,  191 7. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DEDICATED  IN  LOVE 

TO  MY  BABY  GIRL 

WHO  I  TRUST  WILL  SOME  DAY  ASPIRE  TO  THE 

NOBLEST  CALLING  OF  WOMANKIND, 

THAT  OF  HOME  MAKING 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/domesticarchitecOOrobiiala 


PREFACE 

ALTHOUGH  to  some  the  word  architec- 
ture may  suggest  pretentiousness,  the 
contents  of  this  book  will  be  found 
to  relate  to  simple  everyday  things 
pertaining  to  houses.  The  work  is  intended  for 
all  who  are  interested  in  house  problems.  It 
considers  both  the  design  and  construcftion  of  the 
building  itself  and  also  a  number  of  related  topics 
such  as  the  seledlion  and  development  of  the  site 
and  to  some  extent  the  equipment  and  decoration 
of  the  interior.  It  is  hoped  that  it  will  be  found 
useful  to  all  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  able 
to  build  or  remodel  their  own  houses  and  that 
it  may  be  of  special  service  to  those  who,  like 
the  author,  are  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
the  house  to  students  in  colleges  or  in  schools 
of  home  economics.  To  increase  the  pracftical 
usefulness  of  the  book,  chapters  on  the  cost  of 
dwellings  and  on  the  relations  of  the  owner  to 
the  archite(5l  and  to  the  builder  have  been  in- 
cluded. 

L.  E.  R. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
PART  I.— A  TEXT-BOOK 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.     HISTORY  OF  DOMESTIC  AR- 
CHITECTURE.        I 

Shelter — The  Esthetic  Sense — Prehistoric  Struc- 
tures— Egyptian  Dwellings — Western  Asiatic 
Domestic  Architecfture — Greek  Domestic  Archi- 
te(5lure — Roman  Domestic  Architedlure — Early 
European  Domestic  Architecfture — Renaissance 
Architedlure — Conclusion — Sketch  Problems — 
References. 

CHAPTER  II.     DOMESTIC     ARCHITECTURE 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 23 

Dwellings  of  Pioneers — Georgian  or  Colonial  Ar- 
chitedlure — Colonial  Architedlure  in  New  Eng- 
land— Colonial  Architecfture  in  the  Middle  Colo- 
nies— Colonial  Archite(fture  in  the  South — 
Spanish  Architecfture  in  the  South — Late  De- 
velopments— Future  Houses — Sketch  Problems 
— References. 

CHAPTER  III.    BUILDING  SITES 40 

General  Considerations — Public  Utilities — Con- 
veniences— Natural  Advantages — City  Lots — 
Suburban  Lots — Sites  for  Country  Places — Farm 
Sites — Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  IV.     HOUSE  DESIGN 51 

General  Considerations — Types  of  Plans — In- 
dividuality— Charadler  of  Exteriors — The  Geom- 
etry of  Plans — Composition — Arrangement  of 
Rooms — Living  Apartments — Sleeping  Apart- 
ments and  Accessories — Dining  and  Cooking 
Apartments — Kitchen  for  the  Very  Small  Subur- 
ban House — Kitchen  for  the  Large  Suburban 
House — Kitchen  for  a  Farmhouse — Rooms  for 
Servants  or  Hired  Help — Porches  and  Exterior 
Features  —  Basements  —  Conclusion  —  Sketch 
Problems — References. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  V.     INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND  AR- 
CHITECTURAL FURNITURE. 87 

Room  Design — Doors  and  Windows — Trim — Ar- 
chitedlural  Furniture — The  Living  Room — Bed- 
rooms— Dining  Rooms — Kitchens — Conclusion 
— Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  VI.     CHARACTER   AND    MOULD- 
INGS     117 

Architectural  Character — Classical  Mouldings — 
Orders  of  Architecture — The  Tuscan  Order — The 
Doric  Order — The  Ionic  Order — The  Corinthian 
Order — The  Composite  Order — The  Use  of  the 
Orders — Eccentric  Mouldings  and  Ornament — 
Character  of  Colonial  Houses — Characfter  of  Mis- 
cellaneous Styles  —  Sanitary  Mouldings  and 
Treatment  —  Conclusion  —  Sketch  Problems  — 
References. 

CHAPTER  VII.     COMMON     BUILDING    MA- 
TERIALS  ■••133 

Building  Stones — Bricks — Terra  Cotta — Tiles 
— Concrete — Wood — Steel  and  Iron — Sheathing 
Paper  and  Deadening  Quilts — Sketch  Problems — 
References. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    FINISH   BUILDING  MATE- 
RIALS. . 163 

Scope — Materials  Used  to  Make  Plaster,  Mortar 
and  Concrete — Finish  Woods — Finish  Hardware 
— Paint,  Enamel,  Varnish  and  Stain — Tile,  Brick 
and  Terra  Cotta  for  Facing — Glass — Sketch 
Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  IX.    HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION  ....   174 

Kinds — Methods  of  Procedure — Staking  out  the 
Building — Excavation  and  Grading — Masonry — 
Wood  Framing — Exterior  Finish — Sketch  Prob- 
lems— References. 

CHAPTER  X.    INTERIOR  FINISH 192 

Lathe   and   Plaster — Interior   Woodwork — Put- 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ting  on  of  Hardware — Painting,  Varnishing  and 
Staining — Glazing — The  Completed  House — 
Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  XI.    INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND 

TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES. ........   203 

Introdudlion — Color — Period  Decoration — Deco- 
rative Materials — Wood  Treatments — Plaster 
Treatments — Ornamental  Glass,  Tile,  Metal,  etc. 
— The  Living  Rooms  of  a  House — Bedrooms — 
Kitchen  Treatments — Bathroom  Treatments — 
Porch  Treatments — Conclusion — Sketch  Prob- 
lems— References. 

CHAPTER  XII.     HOUSE  FURNISHING 218 

Arrangement  of  Furniture — Pidlures — Miscella- 
neous Articles — Flowers — Furniture — Hangings 
— Floor  Coverings — Conclusion — Sketch  Prob- 
lems— References. 

CHAPTER  XIII.    APPLIANCES 229 

Power — House  Elecftric  Plants — Acetylene  Gas 
Plant — Water  Supply — Hot  Water  Supply — Vac- 
uum Cleaners — Incinerators — Refrigerator  Plants 
— House  Telephones — Dumb  Elevators  or  Lifts — 
Laundry  Machines — Miscellaneous  Devices — 
Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  XIV.    HEATING    AND    VENTILA- 
TION  .....240 

Introdu(5tion  —  Fireplaces  —  Furnace  Heating — 
Steam  Heating — Hot  Water  Heating — Impor- 
tance of  Heating  and  Ventilation — Sketch  Prob- 
lems— References. 

CHAPTER  XV.     LIGHTING 251 

Light — Daylight — Artificial  Light — Gas — Elec- 
tricity —  Personal  Hazard  —  Eledtric  Wiring  — 
Switches — Circuit  Breakers,  Cut-outs  and  Fuses 
— Lamps — Method  of  Calculation — Methods  of 
Illumination  and  Fixtures — Sketch  Problems — 
References. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XVI.     PLUMBING 267 

Introduction — Water  Supply — Drainage — Sew- 
ers— Septic  Tanks — Fixtures — Sketch  Problems 
— References. 

CHAPTER  XVII.    GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS.   277 

Introdudlion  —  Intimacy  —  Characfter  —  Local 
Materials — Utilities — Games — Children's  Pas- 
times— Ornamental  Architectural  Features — 
Water  in  the  Garden — Rock  Gardens — Japanese 
Gardens  — Lawns  — Trees  —  Shrubs  —  Flowers — 
Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER   XVIII.     GARDEN    DESIGN    AND 

CONSTRUCTION 295 

Introduction  —  Survey  —  Topographical  Draw- 
ings— Garden  Design  —  Grading  —  Planting  — 
Trees — Shrubs  and  Hardy  Vines — Flowers — Con- 
clusion— Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  XIX.    THE    ENGLISH     IDEA    OF 

SMALL  HOUSES 310 

Introdu<5tion — Arrangements  of  Middle  Class 
Cottages — Appliances  and  Built-in  Features — 
Building  Materials — Appearance — Sketch  Prob- 
lems. 

CHAPTER  XX.     PRACTICE    OF    ARCHITEC- 
TURE    319 

The  Profession — Owner,  Architect  and  Con- 
tractor— Sketch  Problems — References. 

CHAPTER  XXI.     COST  OF  DWELLINGS 332 

Methods  of  Estimating — Controlling  FaCtors — 
Economical  Points  of  Buildings — Cost  of  Ma- 
sonry— Cost  of  Framing  and  Exterior  Wood  Fin- 
ish— Cost  of  Interior  Finish — Fixtures  and  Spe- 
cial "Details — Addendum — Sketch  Problems — 
References. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  II.— J   PRACTICAL    GUIDE   FOR   HOUSE 
DESIGN 

PAGE 

DRAFTING  ROOM  MANUAL. 343 

Instruments — Kinds  of  Drawings — Conventional 
Indications — Architectural  Terms — Dimensions 
— Equipment  for  Rooms 

PROBLEMS  IN  DESIGN 352 

GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS.  .  .    359 

INDEX 367 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 


I 


PART  ONE— A  TEXT-BOOK 

CHAPTER   I.      HISTORY  OF   DOMESTIC 
ARCHITECTURE 

SHELTER. — In  the  beginning  man  realized 
that  it  was  necessary  to  provide  for  him- 
self a  comfortable  protedlion  against  hos- 
tile forces.  To  accomplish  this  he  used  of 
necessity  the  materials  at  hand  so  that  we  may 
assume  that  hunters  and  fishermen  lived  in 
caves,  that  tillers  of  the  soil  lived  in  huts  of  turf 
or  stone  and  that  shepherds  and  nomads  lived  in 
tents.  At  all  times  the  need  of  shelter  has  been 
the  incentive  for  the  construdlion  of  dwelling 
places.  The  main  facftors  determining  the  na- 
ture of  these  stru(5lures  are  climate,  geology, 
geography,  society,  industry  and  even  religion 
and  politics.    (See  Plate  i.) 

The  -Esthetic  Sense. — Races  of  men  arrived 
at  the  primitive  stage  of  civilization  at  widely 
separated  periods  of  time,  or  having  arrived  at 
about  the  same  time  some  races  failed  to  make 
progress.  With  all  peoples  it  is  apparent  that 
the  aesthetic  sense  was  early  developed.  Having 
made  clay  articles  to  be  used  in  their  domestic 
life  they  became  dissatisfied  with  the  plainness 
of  them  and  took  it  upon  themselves  to  decorate 
the  surfaces  with  crude  paintings.  Also,  having 
made  rude  dwelling  places  they  set  about  orna- 
menting the  walls,  posts,  and  lintels  with  carv- 
ing, sculpture  and  paintings.  From  these  early 
attempts  in  art,  decorative  details  were  ever 
after  closely  associated  with  constru(5live  prin- 
ciples and  together  they  formed  the  art  of 
architecfture. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Prehistoric  Structures. — Remains  of  very  early 
stru(5lures,  not  all  of  which  are  dwellings,  have 
been  discovered  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
They  are  classified  as  monoliths,  dolmens, 
cromlechs,  tumuli,  and  lake  dwellings.  Mono- 
liths, or  single  upright  stones,  probably  ere(5led 
as  monuments,  have  been  found  in  Brittany. 
The  one  at  Carnac  is  63  feet  high,  14  feet  in 
diameter  and  weighs  260  tons.  Dolmens  are 
large  tables  of  stone  supported  by  upright 
stones  and  may  have  been  either  monuments 
or  shelters.  Examples  have  been  found  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  northern  France,  also 
in  Italy  and  India.  Cromlechs  consist  of  a 
series  of  upright  stones  set  in  the  form  of  a 
circle  supporting  a  line  of  horizontal  slabs. 
These  stru(5lures  may  have  been  temples  as 
the  one  at  Stonehenge  suggests.  Tumuli  are 
burial  mounds  and  are  probably  the  prototypes 
of  the  beehive  huts  found  especially  in  Wales, 
Cornwall,  and  Ireland.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt 
are  similar  strucftures  in  many  respecfts.  (See 
Plates  2  and  3.) 

Egyptian  Dwellings. — Probably  as  early  as 
25,000  B.  C.  there  was  a  civilization  in  Egypt 
and  the  population  was  housed  in  mud  huts  on 
the  banks  of  jihe  river  Nile.  In  4,000  B.  C.  a 
date  of  authenticity,  the  people  were  living  in 
houses  of  unburnt  brick,  plaster,  squared  tim- 
bers, and  stone.  The  customs  of  the  Egyptians 
changed  most  slowly,  and  although  no  remains 
of  dwellings  of  an  early  date  have  been  dis- 
covered it  is  assumed  from  later  types  and  from 
ancient  drawings  and  paintings  that  the  average 


y 


l^/n 


Plate  I 
Primitive  Dwellings 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

rural  house  consisted  of  a  hall,  with  a  sleeping 
room  on  each  side,  a  stairway  and  a  flat  roof 
with  a  balcony  on  the  stairway  to  it.  Each 
house  had  a  walled  court  in  front  which  was 
really  a  part  of  the  dwelling  for  here  were  the 
store  rooms,  oven,  poultry  houses  and  the  garden. 
The  objedl  of  the  walled  court  was  to  protecft 
the  entire  establishment  from  the  scorching 
wind  and  sand  of  the  desert.  These  dwellings 
were  invariably  placed  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
or  canals  and  each  was  equipped  with  a  pump 
operated  by  mules  or  slaves  for  supplying  water  to 
the  household.  Gardens  were  irrigated  and  made 
to  produce  a  quantity  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Thus  we  may  assume  that  each  family  lived 
within  its  walls  on  a  narrow  street  that  followed 
the  water  course.  The  cooking  was  done  by 
means  of  the  oven  built  in  the  open  and  the 
meals  were  served  perhaps  in  the  shade  of  palm 
trees.  The  sleeping  rooms  were  much  like  vaults 
and  afforded  protecflion  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 
Very  small  openings  provided  light  and  air 
from  the  outside.  The  balcony  and  roof  were 
used  much  as  is  a  modern  roof  garden,  for  here 
awnings  were  stretched  to  protecft  the  members 
of  the  household  from  wind  and  sun.  Of  the 
occupation  of  these  people  who  lived  within 
their  walls  we  know  but  little.  Perhaps  they 
were  potters  and  builders  except  at  the  time  of 
year  when  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  tend  the 
rice  fields  along  the  Nile.  Perhaps  again  they 
were  all  servants  of  the  king  and  were  compelled 
to  do  according  to  the  system  of  labor  that  then 
prevailed.     (See  Plate  4.) 


<^lQVOUIt.OX>9Ui 


Plate  2 

Map  Showing  Westward  Progression  of  Civilization  and 
Development  of  Architecture 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

There  are  several  Interesting  suppositions 
relative  to  the  origin  of  the  form  of  Egyptian 
strucftures.  The  walls  of  all  buildings  were  very 
substantially  inclined  and  the  roof  In  Its  pro- 
jecftion  beyond  the  wall  formed  a  peculiar  curve. 
Also  the  cap  of  columns  resembled  an  inverted 
bell  corresponding  In  form  to  the  shape  of  the 
eaves  just  mentioned.  One  of  these  supposi- 
tions is  that  the  primitive  stru(5lure,  which  was 
probably  a  dwelling,  was  composed  of  bundles 
of  reeds  stood  on  end  to  form  walls,  being  held 
together  by  a  mass  of  wet  clay.  To  give  solidity 
to  the  strucfture,  the  bundles  of  reeds  were  sloped 
Inward.  The  roof  also  consisted  of  reeds  and  wet 
clay  the  weight  of  which  caused  the  tops  of  the 
upright  bundles  to  bend  outward  forming  the 
cove  In  the  eaves.  This  form  once  established 
became  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  builders  so  that 
later  strucftures  although  built  of  different  ma- 
terials had  the  same  form.  Another  supposi- 
tion to  explain  the  chara(5ler  and  especially  the 
inclined  walls  of  Egyptian  buildings  Is  that  on 
account  of  earthquakes  a  royal  decree  forbade 
the  use  of  any  other  constru(5lion.  Probably 
there  Is  truth  In  both  of  these  suppositions. 
At  any  rate  the  characfter  of  Egyptian  archi- 
tedlure  is  very  distlndllve.  Some  houses  were 
two  or  three  stories  high  and  were  decorated 
in  colors  of  which  yellow  and  blue  seemed  to 
predominate.  Definite  forms  of  ornament  grad- 
ually developed  such  as  the  conventionalized 
lotus  plant,  palm,  and  papyrus.  Geometric 
patterns  were  also  developed. 

The  palace  of  a  monarch  was  far  more  pre- 

6 


Plate  3 

Diagram  Showing  Development  of  Architecture  from  the 
Prehistoric  to  the  American 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

tentious  than  that  of  the  most  wealthy  subjecft. 
It  consisted  of  courts,  porticoes,  public  and  pri- 
vate entrances,  general  chambers,  storehouses, 
and  stables.  In  facfl,  it  was  a  very  complete  and 
beautifully  decorated  building. 

Western  Asiatic  Domestic  Architecture. — ^The 
architedlure  of  this  part  of  the  world  may  be 
divided  into  three  periods:  The  Babylonian, 
4,000  to  1,290  B.  C;  the  Assyrian,  1290  to  538 
B.  C;  the  Persian,  538  to  333  B.  C.  During 
this  entire  length  of  time  vast  changes  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  people  took  place.  This  race 
of  people  was  for  the  most  part  nomadic,  and 
lived  in  tents  or  temporary  strucflures. 

The  Assyrian  period  is  known  as  the  palace 
building  epoch.  Excavations  of  the  palace 
Sargon  at  Khorsabad,  built  about  700  B.  C, 
reveal  a  wonderful  set  of  strucflures  covering 
about  twenty-five  acres  of  ground.  As  is  the 
case  with  all  Assyrian  palaces,  it  is  elevated 
above  the  plain  on  a  stone  and  brick  platform, 
being  reached  by  means  of  stairs  and  inclines. 
This  platform  is  forty-six  feet  high.  The  palace 
is  divided  into  three  distincfl  groups:  the  first 
includes  the  palace  proper,  the  men's  apart- 
ments and  reception  rooms  for  visitors;  the 
second  includes  the  harem  and  private  apart- 
ments of  the  prince  and  his  family;  the  third 
includes  an  immense  courtyard  and  service  cham- 
bers. The  main  entrance  leads  into  the  court- 
yard and  is  highly  impressive.  It  is  ornamented 
with  ten  gigantic  human-headed  bulls.  The  main 
rooms  of  the  palace  are  treated  with  colored 
plaster  and  a  frieze  of  decorative  brick  work. 

8 


Plate  4 
Prehistoric  Egyptian  Dwelling 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Greek  Domestic  Architecture. — ^The  architec- 
ture of  the  Greeks  was  the  pure  classic  from 
which  most  modern  architecfture  developed. 
The  main  buildings  from  which  our  classic 
forms  are  derived  were  the  temples.  In  recent 
years  palaces  have  been  discovered  and  un- 
earthed by  archeologists  showing  elaborate  struc- 
tures of  an  early  date,  perhaps  3,000  B.  C. 
Prior  to  this  time  there  must  have  been  an  ad- 
vanced civilization  in  Greece.  A  vast  array 
of  circumstances  makes  it  impossible  to  classify 
the  styles  and  periods  of  dwellings  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy.  The  general  plan  of  palaces 
and  less  pretentious  dwellings  as  well  was  about 
the  same,  the  difference  being  in  size,  quality 
and  elaborateness.  From  the  street  a  door- 
way opened  into  an  outer  court,  from  which  a 
passage  reached  an  inner  court,  called  a  cella. 
Both  courts  were  open  to  the  sky,  and  were  sur- 
rounded by  porticoes.  Chambers  were  grouped 
on  all  sides,  sometimes  in  two  stories,  but  usually 
in  one. 

Roman  Domestic  Architecture. — Roman  houses 
were  modelled  from  the  Greek,  as  was  their  en- 
tire civilization.  Dwellings  were  of  four  types: 
the  palace,  the  villa  or  country  house,  the 
domus  or  private  house,  and  the  insula  or 
apartment  house.  This  last  was  a  common 
building  of  several  stories  construcfted  in  com- 
pact blocks,  and  used  much  as  a  modern  tene- 
ment house. 

The  palaces  of  Rome  were  developed  from  the 
simple  house  of  Augustus,  26  B.  C,  to  elaborate 
strucftures,  300  A.  D.,  including  temples,  courts, 


HISTORY  OF  DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

gardens,  baths,  peristyles,  passages  and  cham- 
bers covering  acres  of  ground.  These  were 
decorated  with  costly  marbles,  metals  and  mo- 
saics, and  were  adorned  with  plaster  reliefs  and 
frescoes.  The  most  elaborate,  probably,  was 
the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalata.  This  was 
laid  out  like  a  Roman  camp,  and  covered  nearly 
ten  acres.  Thus  we  see  that  the  aggressive, 
conquering  spirit  of  the  Romans  at  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire  was  reflecfled  in  their  dwell- 
ings. 

Villas  were  laid  out  according  to  exposure  to 
the  sun,  prevailing  winds  and  view.  They  con- 
tained baths,  theatres  and  temples,  besides  the 
regular  chambers  built  around  peristyles  for  the 
use  of  the  household.  Sometimes  there  were 
as  many  as  three  or  four  interior  courts  contain- 
ing beautiful  fountains  and  seats.  Landscape 
gardening  was  developed  to  a  high  state,  and  the 
villa  grounds  were  magnificently  treated.  The 
most  famous  and  extensive  villa  was  that  of 
Hadrian.    Its  ruins  cover  hundreds  of  acres. 

There  are  not  many  examples  of  the  domus 
or  typical  private  house  to  be  found.  Excava- 
tions in  Pompeii  show  that  the  house  usually 
contained  two  courts,  one  of  which  had  the  por- 
tico surrounding  it,  and  was  therefore  a  peri- 
style. The  entrance  was  called  the  Atrium. 
The  part  of  the  house  facing  the  street  was  con- 
verted into  shops  or  was  left  a  solid  wall :  in  fadl, 
all  the  rooms  of  the  dwelling  opened  only  from 
the  courts,  and  received  light  and  air  from  this 
source,  which,  on  account  of  the  bright  climate 
of  Italy,  was  sufficient.    The  family  lived  in  the 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

peristyle  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  and  it  was 
made  very  livable  and  beautiful  indeed.  The 
walls  were  either  veneered  with  marble  or  painted 
in  brilliant  colors  and  fantastic  designs.  The 
buildings  were  very  flimsily  construcfted,  which 
accounts  for  the  fadt  that  only  a  few  examples  of 
the  private  house  remain.    (See  Plate  5.) 

Early  European  Domestic  Architecture. — Out 
of  the  chaos  of  the  dark  ages  in  Europe  came 
several  distin(5l  types  of  dwellings,  and  a  con- 
fusion of  other  types.  At  all  times  we  have  had 
the  palace  of  the  strong  and  the  hovel  of  the 
weak.  From  476  A.  D.,  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire,  the  Church  was  the  main 
facflor  of  culture.  Throughout  Europe  an  ar- 
chitecfture  called  Romanesque  was  slowly  being 
developed  into  the  Gothic.  The  buildings  were 
ecclesiastical  for  the  most  part,  but  the  influence 
extended  to  domestic  strucftures.  In  France 
some  wonderful  palaces  were  erecfled.  In  Ger- 
many, the  castles  on  the  Rhine  and  at  Nurem- 
burg,  Heidelberg  and  elsewhere  are  notable 
examples  of  early  European  domestic  architec- 
ture. During  the  middle  ages,  especially  in 
England,  fortified  castles  of  the  nobles  sprang  up 
conforming  to  conditions,  then  existing,  of  many 
feudal  lords  with  their  vassals  fighting  for  su- 
premacy. In  the  relation  of  lord  and  vassal, 
the  former  was  entitled  to  service  and  the  latter 
to  protedlion  and  maintenance.  The  castle  was 
a  combined  residence  and  military  post.  The 
first  of  these  strucftures  were  military  rather 
than  domestic,  and  consisted  of  an  outer  court, 
an  inner  court,  and  a  donjon  or  keep  several 


-«  5rt ru 
TiUorr-o 


_J 


i0Zi„r 


Plate  5 
Early  Roman  House 


13 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Stories  high.  All  was  surrounded  by  high  stone 
walls  with  towers  and  a  deep  moat  with  a  draw- 
bridge. Usually  the  castle  was  built  on  a  high 
rocky  point,  difficult  of  approach.  One  of  the 
earlier  fortifications  is  Kenilworth  Castle,  built 
in  the  twelfth  century,    (See  Plate  6.) 

These  castles  were  enlarged  by  adding  build- 
ings around  the  donjon,  the  great  hall  above  the 
keep  remaining  the  principal  feature.  An  in- 
teresting and  typical  example  of  a  nobleman's 
house  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  Panshurst 
Place,  in  Kent.  The  great  hall  is  sixty-eight  feet 
long,  thirty-eight  feet  wide,  and  forty-eight  feet 
high.  At  one  end  there  is  a  raised  platform  called 
a  dais,  and  at  the  other  a  screen  in  front  of  a 
passage  leading  to  the  court,  and  to  the  pantry 
and  buttery.  The  walls  were  decorated  with 
trophies  of  the  chase,  tapestries,  and  old  arms. 
The  floor  was  covered  with  rushes. 

In  a  gallery  over  the  entrance  at  the  end  of  the 
passage,  the  minstrels  were  seated.  An  open 
fire  was  built  in  the  centre  of  the  great  hall,  the 
smoke  escaping  through  louvres  in  the  roof,  and 
meats  were  roasted  in  vast  quantities.  The  noble 
and  his  intimates  dined  on  the  raised  platform, 
while  the  retainers  sat  about  the  fire.  Servants 
carried  the  foodstuffs  from  the  pantry  and 
buttery  behind  the  paneled  screen  to  the  diners 
in  the  great  hall.  Dogs  and  other  pet  animals 
ran  at  large  among  the  members  of  this  estab- 
lishment. At  the  close  of  the  night  meal,  the 
great  hall  became  the  sleeping  quarters  of  the 
retainers. 

Gradually  more  improvements  and  additions 

H 


Plate  6 
Early  Feudal  Castle 


IS 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

were  made  to  these  castles.  Wings  were  annexed 
to  the  building  to  serve  as  dormitories  for  the 
servants.  A  solar  or  withdrawing  room  was 
added,  leaving  the  great  hall  for  dining  purposes 
only.  Towers,  chapels,  wine  cellars,  breweries, 
chambers  and  extensive  service  rooms  were 
built  on  one  at  a  time.  The  open  fire  on  dogs 
was  abolished,  and  a  hooded  niche  against  the 
wall  was  used  in  its  place;  this  developed  into  a 
fireplace  with  a  brick  chimney.  Eventually,  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  Tudor  house  consisted 
of  buildings  grouped  about  a  central  quadran- 
gular court  with  a  prominent  entrance  in  the 
centre  of  one  side  under  a  gatehouse,  and  the 
hall  on  the  opposite  side  with  other  rooms  down 
the  ends  of  the  court.  Later  private  dining 
rooms  were  introduced,  and  the  modern  English 
house  or  country  home  was  in  a  fair  way  of 
being  logically  established.     (See  Plate  7.) 

The  origin  of  towns  in  France,  Germany, 
Belgium  and  England  was  due  to  the  facft  that 
traders  and  others  grouped  themselves  around 
the  castles  of  the  nobles,  or  formed  dependencies 
to  the  monasteries.  Afterwards,  on  account  of 
this  movement,  there  arose  in  many  towns  two 
rival  authorities,  one  the  outgrowth  of  the 
church,  and  the  other  the  outgrowth  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  feudal  lord.  Towns  as  well  as 
castles  were  sometimes  fortified,  owing  to  the 
lawless  times,  Rothenburg,  Germany,  is  a 
fascinating  example  of  a  small  walled  city. 
Finally  royal  power  suppressed  petty  warfare, 
and  castles  to  a  great  extent  were  done  away 
with.    Moreover,  in  1500  A.  D.  gunpowder  was 

16 


Plate  7 
English  Houses  Developed  from  the  Feudal  Castle 


17 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

invented,  and  attacks  were  made  not  with  brands 
of  fire,  spears  and  swords,  but  with  guns  and 
cannon  so  that  stone  walls  were  no  longer  suffi- 
cient fortification.  Thus  the  homes  of  the  people 
became  domestic  in  character,  rather  than  mil- 
itary. 

Town  dwellings  often  consisted  of  a  shop  on 
the  ground  floor  and  sleeping  apartments  above. 
The  kitchen  and  service  rooms  were  usually 
behind  the  shop  on  the  first  floor.  In  each 
locality  throughout  Europe,  conditions,  mate- 
rials at  hand,  climate,  individuality  and  accident 
brought  about  many  temporary  domestic  styles, 
but  the  variations  are  not  as  marked  as  might  be 
expe(5led.  In  the  higher  development  of  Gothic 
domestic  architedlure,  relative  to  castle  building, 
there  is  a  rather  marked  difference  between  the 
strucftures  of  the  various  countries  and  distri(5ls. 
This  is  due  to  national  individualism,  for  which 
the  upper  classes  or  castle  builders  were  respon- 
sible.    (See  Plate  8.) 

Renaissance  Architecture. — In  spite  of  the 
growing  individualism  of  Gothic  Architecfbure, 
the  great  wave  of  the  Renaissance,  or  classic 
revival  of  architedlure,  swept  over  all  alike  and 
shattered  the  original  beauty  of  medieval  dwell- 
ings. All  new  parts  and  additions  to  castles 
were  made  according  to  the  Roman  classic 
style,  with  variations,  so  that  in  the  end  a  build- 
ing was  a  conglomerate  mass,  each  part,  perhaps, 
beautiful  in  itself,  but  not  conforming  with  other 
parts.  A  noted  example  of  this  is  the  Chateau 
de  Blois,  which  was  built  by  Louis  XII  and  Fran- 
cis I,  between  1498  and  1547  A.  D. 

18 


nnn 


tLl 


o 

3 

^ 

< 

0 

1, 

)^ 

iplll 

..ilffllM^^ 

-■!§ 


0 
^ 


4* 


%^ 


^D    D? 


ci>7"D'a.'v/ 


3C 


01- 

I 

^1 


•^1 


%M^ 


D 
p 

u 


Plate  8 
French  Chateau 


19 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

All  good  examples  of  Renaissance  domestic 
architecfture  in  Europe  are  of  the  elaborate  type 
of  palace  or  chateau,  such  as  the  Chateau  de 
Blois,  built  before  the  style  began  to  degenerate. 
The  Louvre  was  commenced  in  1540  A.  D.,  and 
not  completed  until  1857.  Meanwhile  the  style 
had  started  on  its  decline  and  again  been  revived. 
In  England  the  classic  influence  made  itself  felt 
greatly  through  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean 
periods,  until  at  last,  in  the  Georgian  period,  the 
prevailing  style  was  stricftly  classic.  The  seven- 
teenth century  development  was  due  largely  to 
two  architecfls,  Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.  Throughout  the  Vi(5lorian  period  both 
Greek  architecfture  and  Gothic  were  revived. 
Perhaps  at  the  present  time  the  domestic  ar- 
chitecflure  of  England  may  be  said  to  be  English 
Gothic,  and  is  quite  a  true  outgrowth  of  medieval 
dwellings. 

Conclusion. — ^Thus  through  the  ages  is  the  his- 
tory of  man  chronicled  in  his  architecflure,  and 
his  private  life  revealed  in  the  ruins  of  his  dwell- 
ings. His  first  great  desire  was  for  a  home;  his 
second,  for  a  monument;  his  third,  for  a  shrine; 
and  his  fourth,  for  a  place  in  which  to  pursue  his 
occupation. 

Oldest  science,  noblest  art: — 
A  roof  for  man  from  beast  apart; — 
A  monument,  a  shrine,  a  mart: 
Our  art  of  architedture. 

Colossal  heaps  of  hewn  stone 
At  cost  of  centuries'  blood  and  bone; — ■ 
The  Pharoahs  built  for  whim  alone 
The  pyramids  of  Egypt. 

2Q 


HISTORY  OF  DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Of  purest  line  and  classic  mould, 
The  conquerors  in  that  nation  bold 
Erecfted  to  the  gods  of  old, 
The  temples  of  the  Greeks. 

Mad  with  lust  of  life  and  power, 
An  Empire  raged  through  its  brief  hour, 
But  left  an  architecftural  flower; — 
The  glory  of  the  Romans. 

Through  fitful  medieval  fires 
A  Gothic  race  shows  its  desires 
In  noble  arch  and  lofty  spires; — 
Cathedrals  of  the  Christians. 

A  castle  for  the  strong  and  wild: 
A  villa  for  the  calm  and  mild: 
A  cottage  for  the  poor  man's  child: 
The  homes  of  all  God's  people. 

Oldest  science,  noblest  art: 
A  roof  for  man  from  beast  apart: — 
A  monument,  a  shrine,  a  mart: 
Our  art  of  architecfture. 


21 


Sketch  Problems 

Note;  For  all  drawings  use  a  soft  pencil  and  rough 
white  drawing  paper  8j/2"xii",  or  notebook  size.  Ob- 
serve drawings  in  the  text  and  suggest  ideas  sinriilarly. 
Notes  on  drawings  should  be  lettering  rather  than  script. 
Whenever  possible,  drawings  should  be  made  free-hand 
but  straight  edges,  instruments  and  scales  may  be  used 
when  necessary. 

(i)  Make  a  sketch  of  a  cave  dwelling. 

(2)  Copy  the  pidlure  of  an  Egyptian  house. 

(3)  Draw  from  memory  a  typical  feudal  castle. 

References 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher. — A  History  of  Architedlure. 

Hamlin. — A  History  of  Architedture. 

Viollet-le-Duc. — The  Habitations  of  Man  in  all  Ages. 

Garnier  and  Amman. — L'Habitation  Humane. 

Bevier. — ^The  House. 

Thompson. — The  History  of  the  Dwelling  House. 

Nash. — The  Mansions  of  England  in  the  Olden  Time. 


22 


CHAPTER    II.      DOMESTIC    ARCHITEC- 
TURE IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

DWELLINGS  of  Pioneers. — ^At  all  times 
pioneers  have  been  compelled  to  build 
their  homes  of  materials  at  hand. 
The  first  settlers  in  New  England, 
and  other  places  along  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
erected  log  cabins  and  stone  huts  for  tem- 
porary shelter  and  protecftion.  In  many  in- 
stances these  houses  were  also  fortifications 
against  hostile  Indians.  As  the  country  to  the 
west  was  gradually  settled,  the  same  condition 
of  affairs  is  evidenced.  In  some  states,  such  as 
Kansas,  where  neither  building  stones  nor  logs 
were  available,  dugouts  and  houses  of  turf  were 
used  by  the  people.  However,  the  dwellings  of 
pioneers  are  erecfted  with  the  idea  of  using  them 
for  a  short  time  only,  and  have  no  bearing  upon 
the  development  of  domestic  architecfture.  Such 
houses  are  interesting  only  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  resourcefulness  of  determined  men  and 
women. 

Georgian,  or  Colonieil  Architecture. — During 
the  Georgian  period  of  England,  the  colonies 
in  America  assumed  an  importance  of  their  own. 
The  architedlure  of  the  mother  country  was  im- 
itated and  our  colonial  style  established.  Thus 
because  the  colonies  were  in  process  of  early 
development  at  a  time  when  the  classic  revival 
of  architecfture  was  at  its  height  in  Europe,  our 
own  architecture  was  permanently  affe(5led,  and 
classic  lines  and  mouldings  given  to  our  early 
homes.  So  anxious  were  the  colonists  to  have  in 
their  new  homes  what  they  had  used   in  the 

23 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

mother  country,  that  parts  of  houses,  such  as 
mantel  pieces,  cupboards  and  doors  were  brought 
over  in  ships  and  incorporated  bodily  in  the  new 
dwellings. 

Colonial  Architecture  in  New  England. — ^The 
first  colonial  houses  were  built  from  1600  to 
1700.  Archite(fturally  they  were  very  plain  and 
simple,  with  the  exception  of  the  Old  Stone  House 
at  Guilford,  which  is  irregular  and  picfturesque. 
The  plans  were  recftangular,  and  consisted  of  a 
hallway  with  rooms  on  either  side,  and  openings 
placed  symmetrically.  The  roof  was  of  the 
gambrel  type,  and  the  attic  story  overhung  the 
story  below.  Dormers  were  usually  placed  in  the 
roof  at  regular  intervals.    (See  Plate  9.) 

The  Old  Stone  House  at  Guilford,  Connedlicut, 
was  a  residence,  a  fortification  and  a  meeting- 
house combined.  It  was  erecfted  by  the  Reverend 
Henry  Whitfield,  in  1634,  and  is  the  oldest  house 
in  New  England.  This  house  was  kept  in  its 
original  form  until  1868,  when  it  was  remodeled. 
It  consisted  of  two  stories  and  an  attic.  In  the 
attic  were  several  recesses,  probably  intended 
for  places  of  concealment.  All  walls  were  made 
of  stone,  and  were  about  three  feet  thick,  so  as 
to  withstand  a  severe  attack.  This  stone  was 
evidently  obtained  from  a  quarry  about  eighty 
rods  from  the  building  site,  and  was  transported 
at  great  cost  in  time  and  labor.  The  partitions, 
which  were  movable,  could  be  folded  back  to 
allow  a  large  space  for  the  gathering  of  wor- 
shipers. The  woodwork  of  the  building  was  of 
oak. 

Another  example  of  the  military  homes  is  the 

24 


Plate  9 
Early  New  England  Farm  House 


25 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Red  Horse  Inn,  at  Sudbury,  Massachusetts, 
built  in  1680,  and  made  famous  by  Longfellow's 
"Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn."  The  Cradock  house 
is  also  very  interesting.  The  bricks  for  this 
building  were  burned  on  the  site,  and  the  timber 
used  in  it  was  hewn  from  the  surrounding  forest. 
This  house  was  a  trading  post  and  a  home.  A 
number  of  loopholes  were  built  into  the  wall 
from  which  to  fire  rifles,  and  the  doorway  was 
guarded  with  irons,  so  that  the  building  has  a 
very  military  aspe(5l.  At  each  end  of  the  struc- 
ture a  large  chimney  rises  to  a  considerable 
height.  There  is  no  ornament  upon  the  house 
except  a  belt  course  at  the  second  floor  level. 

At  an  early  date  a  cottage  type  was  developed 
by  extending  the  roof  of  the  building  in  a  long 
sweep  over  a  one-story  part,  usually  in  the  rear. 
Later  a  low  roof  was  extended  in  the  front  as  well. 
The  main  feature  of  the  cottage  was  the  classical 
doorway,  which  was  quite  typical  of  all  colonial 
houses.  The  Witch  House  in  Salem,  the  home 
of  Paul  Revere  in  Boston,  and  the  home  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  are  examples  of  this  type. 

About  1730  prosperity  and  peace  settled  upon 
the  colonists.  The  more  prosperous  merchants 
and  landowners  set  about  building  permanent 
homes,  the  log  cabin  being  always  in  disfavor  with 
these  pioneers.  Governor  Cradock's  military 
home  seems  to  have  been  a  model  from  which 
many  other  houses  were  evolved.  At  first  the 
gambrel  roof  was  the  common  type,  but  event- 
ually the  mansard  roof,  the  ridge  roof  and  the 
flat  roof  were  developed  from  it.  Most  of  the 
plans  of  the  early  colonial   houses  were  sym- 

26 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

metrical.  The  entrance  remained  the  important 
feature,  and  was  seldom  neglecfled  in  the  working 
out  of  details.  It  usually  consisted  of  pilasters, 
cornice  and  pediment  or  hood  of  simpler  type. 
These  entrances  showed  marked  individuality 
in  design,  and  are  worthy  of  extensive  study. 
The  interiors  of  the  1730  homes  were  very  in- 
teresting, and  often  handsome,  the  stairways 
and  fireplaces  being  especially  important. 

The  Hancock  house  in  Boston  was  begun  in 
1737.  It  was  a  stone  building,  so  well  con- 
strudled  that  when  torn  down  it  was  necessary 
to  blast  the  stones  apart.  The  Hancock  house 
was  erecfled  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  bay,  just 
outside  of  the  city.  The  entrance  was  in  the 
centre  of  the  front,  which  was  fifty-six  feet  wide, 
and  was  protecfled  by  a  balcony  above,  which 
opened  from  the  hallway  of  the  second  story. 
On  each  side  of  the  entrance  were  two  large 
windows  on  both  the  lower  and  upper  floors. 
The  cornice  was  refined,  and  altogether  the 
house  was  a  well  designed  and  dignified  build- 
ing. 

The  Vassal-Craigie-Longfellow  house  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  was  built  in  1759,  and 
was  the  home  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow 
after  1837.  This  house  "was  among  the  first  to  be 
designed  with  a  deck  on  the  roof  surrounded  by  a 
balustrade.  It  is  symmetrical  in  plan,  and  has 
a  low  porch  at  each  end.  The  exterior  is  treated 
with  pilasters,  which  extend  from  the  ground 
line  to  the  cornice.  In  the  centre  portion  two 
pilasters  are  planted  at  the  corners  of  a  slight 
proje(5tion  which  terminates  in  a  pediment  in 

27 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  roof.  At  each  side  of  this  pediment  is  a 
dormer  window. 

Elmwood,  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  was 
built  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was 
the  birthplace  and  home  of  James  Russell  Lowell. 
Elmwood  is  three  stories  high,  and  stands  in  a 
grove  of  trees  planted  by  the  father  of  the  poet. 
This  building  is  a  fine  example  of  the  later  type 
of  colonial  house.  A  balustrade  extends  on  all 
sides  of  the  roof  immediately  over  the  cornice. 

Colonial  Architecture  in  the  Middle  Colonies. — 
In  New  Amsterdam,  which  later  became  New 
York,  domestic  architedlure  was  influenced 
from  a  great  many  sources.  The  original  col- 
onists were  Dutch,  but  settlers  of  many  na- 
tionalities mingled  with  them.  It  is  said  that 
before  the  English  occupation  more  than  a 
dozen  different  languages  were  spoken  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  which  at  that  time  had  less 
than  two  thousand  inhabitants.  Moreover, 
New  York  was  more  liberal  and  tolerant  in 
regard  to  religious  beliefs  than  any  other  colony, 
so  that  each  man  went  his  way  in  a  more  un- 
restri<fled  manner  than  would  otherwise  have 
been  the  case.  This  general  spirit  is  evidenced 
in  the  dwellings  of  the  people.  The  log  cabin  was 
necessarily  used  in  the  beginning  as  a  shelter 
and  protecftion,  but  the  Dutch  were  as  intolerant 
of  it  as  were  the  New  Englanders.  Soon  houses 
of  stone,  brick  and  frame  were  eredled,  influenced 
again  by  the  classic  revival  of  architecfture  in 
Europe.  Although  the  general  appearance  of 
these  houses  was  much  the  same  as  those  in 
New  England,  the  treatment  of  parts  was  more 

28 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

liberal  and  ingenious.  The  gambrel  roof  was 
not  much  in  vogue,  and  when  used  was  greatly 
modified,  the  upper  slope  being  reduced  so 
much  in  size  as  to  be  insignificant.  The  long 
slope  of  roof,  as  used  in  New  England  cottages, 
was  often  gracefully  curved  to  extend  over  a 
lower  story.  Many  of  the  gable  roofs  were  also 
curved  at  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  Innovations 
in  the  way  of  dormers,  entrances,  hoods  over 
doorways,  and  window  details  were  established. 
Gradually  English  influence  predominated  over 
Dutch,  and  the  colonial  style  resembled  more 
closely  that  of  the  colonies  further  north.  Owing 
to  fires  in  the  city  of  New  York,  not  many 
examples  of  domestic  architecfture  remain.  How- 
ever, in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  and  in  other 
towns  along  the  Hudson,  there  are  a  number  of 
old  houses  still  standing,  some  of  which  are  of 
historical  interest.  Among  these  is  the  Morris 
Mansion  at  165th  street  and  Ninth  avenue, 
New  York  City.  This  building  was  erecfted 
about  1758  by  Roger  Morris,  a  British  officer, 
and  of  course  a  Tory  during  the  Revolution. 
Consequently  his  property  was  confiscated. 
Here  General  Washington  made  his  headquarters 
during  operations  near  the  city.  Later  the  house 
became  the  property  of  Madame  Jumel,  a 
French  woman  who  was  married  to  Aaron  Burr. 
This  house  has  slender  front  porch  columns 
extending  to  the  main  cornice,  and  a  balcony 
at  the  second  floor  supported  by  brackets  pro- 
jecting halfway  across  the  porch  floor  below. 
Another  house  of  historical  interest  is  the  home 
of  Alexander  Hamilton.    This  house  has  a  small 

29 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

cornice  and  a  balustrade  surrounding  a  flat  roof. 
It  had  on  three  sides  porches  which  almost 
enclosed  the  building. 

Worthy  of  mention  are  the  Dutch  cottages  of 
New  York.  These  had  sweeping  roofs  and  in- 
teresting windows  and  porches,  varied  to  quite 
an  extent.  The  cottage  of  this  style  has  since 
developed  to  a  rather  prominent  type. 

In  Pennsylvania,  especially  in  Philadelphia 
and  Germantown,  there  is  a  wealth  of  examples 
of  colonial  architecflure.  The  first  settlers  of 
Pennsylvania  were  an  interesting  lot  of  men. 
William  Penn  established  upon  his  immense 
grant  of  land  a  refuge  for  all  religious  secfls, 
including  the  Quakers  and  Dunkards.  The 
general  appearance  of  the  houses  of  this  colony 
was  not  greatly  different  from  that  of  others. 
Many  houses  were  built  of  stone,  with  perhaps 
a  stucco  surface,  and  with  brick  or  stone  quoins 
showing  at  the  corners.  The  earliest  stone 
houses  were  very  crude.  Of  these,  the  home  of 
John  Bartram  in  West  Philadelphia,  built  in 
173 1,  is  notable.  It  has  two  story,  semi-detached 
columns  with  Ionic  caps.  The  windows  are 
treated  with  mouldings  cut  into  the  rough  stone 
in  imitation  of  the  German  classic  style  of  the 
time.  All  the  stone  carving  in  this  building 
is  so  crude  as  to  be  childish,  but  it  shows  the 
fervor  of  the  builder,  and  his  desire  to  produce 
something  in  a  new  country  which  would  have 
the  refinement  of  the  old.  On  Wissahickon 
Creek  there  are  a  large  number  of  old  colonial 
houses,  many  of  which  have  very  interesting  de- 
tails of  construc5lion,  especially  in  the  interiors. 

30 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Colonial  Architecture  in  the  South. — Espe- 
cially in  Virginia  and  South  Carolina,  a  large 
number  of  aristocratic  Englishmen  settled,  and 
later  became  the  original  country  gentlemen  of 
America.  On  account  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  the  use  of  slaves,  which  were  early  imported 
by  the  Dutch,  these  men  became  very  wealthy, 
and  because  of  their  natural  refinement,  they 
erecfted  houses  of  taste  and  durability.  Roads 
in  this  country  were  only  bridle  paths,  but  the 
rivers  were  all-important,  since  commerce  was 
carried  on  by  means  of  boats.  Thus  the  homes 
of  the  planters  were  built  along  the  river  fronts, 
especially  those  of  the  river  James  and  the 
Potomac  river.  Each  planter  had  his  own  little 
dock  to  which  the  trading  vessels  from  New  York 
and  New  England  would  come  for  the  crop  of 
tobacco  and  other  produce.  A^Tost  of  the  houses 
had  a  front  facing  the  river,  and  a  secondary 
front  facing  the  plantation  of  the  owner.  To 
this  day,  along  these  rivers  may  be  seen  the 
remains  of  many  such  houses,  which  in  the  early 
times,  and  even  up  to  the  Civil  War,  were  pros- 
perous establishments.     (See  Plate  lo.) 

Since  these  Southerners  were  lovers  of  country 
life,  very  few  towns  came  into  existence,  and 
still  fewer  succeeded  in  becoming  permanent 
cities.  Annapolis,  in  Maryland,  was  an  excep- 
tion. In  this  city  the  streets  radiated  from  two 
centres,  at  which  were  the  buildings  of  the  State 
and  the  buildings  of  the  Church,  the  church 
being  the  Church  of  England.  The  buildings  of 
the  city  were  of  the  style  of  the  Queen  Anne 
period  in  England,  and  included  not  only  res- 

31 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

idences,  but  churches,  schools,  clubhouses,  a 
theatre,  and  a  race  course.  The  prosperity  of 
this  town  lasted  only  down  to  the  Revolution, 
when  perhaps  many  of  the  inhabitants  remained 
loyal  to  England. 

The  best  houses  of  the  south  were  of  masonry. 
In  the  earlier  days  bricks  were  imported,  but 
later  they  were  made  on  the  building  site.  The 
bond  used  by  bricklayers  was  usually  the  Flem- 
ish, in  many  cases  the  alternating  bricks  being 
of  a  darker  color.  There  is  a  large  variety  of 
plans  among  the  examples  of  southern  colonial 
archite(5ture.  Generally  they  were  symmetrical, 
consisting  of  a  main  unit,  with  the  entrance  in 
the  centre  of  it,  and  perhaps  a  wing  on  each 
side.  On  account  of  the  smaller  estates  having 
less  demand  for  the  accommodation  of  slaves, 
servants,  and  also  of  guests,  the  plans  of  the 
establishments  varied  to  quite  an  extent.  In 
Maryland,  quarters  for  the  dependents  were  pro- 
vided by  story  and  a  half  wings  conne<fted  with 
the  main  building  by  means  of  one-story  cor- 
ridors. In  Virginia,  these  quarters  were  pro- 
vided by  means  of  separate  strucftures,  some- 
times two  stories  in  height,  and  usually  grouped 
symmetrically. 

Among  the  examples  of  this  style  interesting 
to  us  are  Monticello,  the  home  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  and  Mount  Vernon,  the  home  of 
George  Washington.  Jefferson  was  a  man  of 
diversified  capabilities,  among  his  accomplish- 
ments being  that  of  archite(5lural  design.  Mon- 
ticello, near  Charlotteville,  Virginia,  was  erecfted 
at  the  cost  of  bankruptcy  to  the  owner^     It  is  a 

32 


i:  IX  (X  vp  (^  i<^  o 
<  cQ  U  Q  ft4  j/^  o 


Plate  lo 
Early  Southern  Mansion 


33 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

large  symmetrical  brick  building  in  which  the 
Italian  Renaissance  style  is  imitated.  The  order 
of  architecfture  used  is  Roman  Doric. 

Mount  Vernon  is  especially  interesting  to 
Americans,  It  is  located  on  the  Potomac  River 
with  a  water  front  and  a  garden  front.  The 
facade  on  the  water  front  is  treated  with  a  series 
of  square  columns,  two  stories  in  height,  crowned 
with  a  classical  cornice.  The  whole  building  is 
construdled  of  wood.  The  grounds  are  laid  out 
symmetrically,  and  have,  besides  the  main  build- 
ing with  its  two  wings,  more  than  a  dozen  out- 
buildings, all  grouped  symmetrically.  Here 
George  Washington  retired  to  lead  a  quiet  life 
after  the  turmoil  of  his  military  and  political 
career. 

Spanish  Architecture  in  the  South. — Florida 
was  settled  between  1500  and  1600  by  the  Span- 
ish, Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  having  explored  the 
peninsula  in  15 13.  About  the  same  time  many 
French  and  English  colonists  also  made  their 
homes  upon  this  coast.  The  main  towns  were 
St.  Augustine,  Savannah,  and  Pensacola,  which 
places  were  first  under  the  control  of  one  Eu- 
ropean nation,  and  then  of  another.  However, 
Spanish  influence  predominated,  so  that  the 
buildings  were  essentially  Spanish.  The  houses 
were  of  light  colored  stone,  or  of  brick  with  gray, 
pink,  yellow  or  blue  stucco.  Most  of  them  were 
two  stories  in  height,  the  lower  floor,  in  many 
cases,  being  a  high  basement,  while  the  upper  was 
occupied  by  the  family  as  living  apartments. 
Many  of  the  windows  were  treated  with  wrought 
iron  balconies  on  brackets.    The  doorways  were 

34 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

entered  from  courts.  The  eaves  of  the  buildings 
projecfted,  and  the  roofs  were  covered  with  red 
tile.  The  type  was  stridlly  Spanish,  and  as  the 
Renaissance  affecfted  the  architedlure  of  Spain, 
the  colonists  made  like  changes  in  their  dwell- 
ings. To  this  day,  the  Spanish-American  style 
of  architecflure  is  used  in  Florida,  and  large 
hotels  and  residences  with  plaster  walls  and  red 
tile  roofs  have  been  erecfled  of  late. 

Louisiana  has  a  wonderfully  interesting  his- 
tory, the  heart  of  Louisiana  being  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  Here  mingled  people  of  many 
races,  especially  French  and  Spanish.  Secftions 
of  the  city  were  named  according  to  the  na- 
tionality of  the  people  living  there,  and  each 
sec5lion  was  distinguished  by  its  architecture. 
Many  of  these  old  buildings  remain  standing. 
Here  are  courtyards  and  balconies,  doorways 
and  dormer  windows  of  infinite  variety.  Plas- 
tered walls  of  many  colors  are  now  scaled  and 
cracked  and  covered  with  moss  and  vines.  Re- 
naissance architecfture  made  its  influence  felt 
here  as  elsewhere,  so  that  the  arched  doors  and 
windows,  iron  balconies  and  wooden  eaves  were 
superseded  by  classic  details. 

California  was  first  peopled  by  the  Franciscan 
missionaries,  who  made  their  way  to  San  Diego 
and  gradually  moved  northward,  establishing 
mission  houses  which  stand  to  the  present  time. 
Primarily,  these  missionaries  were  educators. 
At  each  mission  house  they  established  or  gath- 
ered around  them  a  colony  of  native  Indians 
whom  they  taught  to  cultivate  the  soil  and  to 
raise  live  stock  for  their  own  use  and  for  exporta- 

35 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

tion.  In  this  way  the  missions  became  extremely 
wealthy  for  their  time,  and  with  cheap  labor  at 
hand  were  enabled  to  build  many  houses  of 
rather  elaborate  plan  and  type.  On  account 
of  the  climate  of  Southern  California,  the  ten- 
dency was  to  make  the  buildings  more  open 
than  were  the  prototypes  in  Spain. 

With  such  interesting  historic  examples  of 
archite(5lure  as  an  inspiration,  the  later  immi- 
grants to  California,  of  American  birth  and  an- 
cestry, immediately  adopted  the  style  of  these 
buildings  and  have  since  developed  it  to  an 
elaborate  state.  In  facft,  in  many  cases  the  style 
has  been  so  elaborated  as  to  be  unrecognizable. 
However,  the  simpler  buildings  are  most  beauti- 
ful. Many  of  the  bungalows  of  California  at 
the  present  time  have  received  their  inspiration 
from  the  original  mission  house.  A  peculiar  in- 
fluence which  has  acfted  upon  the  builders  of 
California  is  that  of  Japan.  Much  of  the  wood- 
work, roof  lines,  and  smaller  details  show  dis- 
tincfl  Japanese  influence.     (See  Plate  i8.) 

Late  Developments. — ^The  United  States  of 
America  has  been  subjecfted  to  world-wide  in- 
fluences more  than  any  other  country.  Its  citi- 
zens have  come  from  pracftically  every  nation. 
It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  the  archite(5lure  of 
America  is  conglomerate.  We  have  not  only 
the  more  original  styles  which  were  brought  to 
us  by  the  colonists  from  many  countries,  but  we 
have  later  styles,  which  have  been  developed 
in  other  countries  and  brought  to  us  or  derived 
from  historic  examples.  These  styles  have  not 
been  used  in  their  original  form,  but  have  been 

36 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

adapted  to  our  needs.  At  the  present  time  we 
can  name  the  style  of  but  a  few  buildings.  We 
use  the  terms  "Colonial,"  "Dutch  Colonial," 
"Tudor,"  "Old  English,"  "Modern  English," 
"Spanish,"  "French,"  "Italian,"  "Mission," 
"Art  Nouveau,"  and  others,  but  they  are  rather 
meaningless,  and  are  gradually  going  out  of  use. 
In  the  matter  of  architecftural  detail  the  terms 
are  still  of  some  importance. 

Our  main  triumph  is  in  the  development  of 
the  suburban  house,  in  which  we  have  pracfli- 
cally  abandoned  all  precedents.  There  have 
been  many  innovations  in  the  way  of  conven- 
iences, so  that  the  American  house  is  the  most 
livable  in  the  world.  There  have  also  been  many 
innovations  in  decorative  detail,  both  interior 
and  exterior.  A  number  of  archite(5ts  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  ability  to  create 
individual  mouldings,  cornices  and  like  details. 
Materials  at  hand,  both  natural  and  manufac- 
tured, are  most  numerous  and  varied.  This 
condition  has  enabled  us  to  do  many  things 
otherwise  impossible,  but  it  has  also  tended  to 
produce  inharmonious  eife(5ls  in  our  buildings 
in  regard  to  color  and  to  the  relation  of  one  part 
to  another. 

American  houses  may  be  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  present  day  types,  as  the  city  residence,  the 
country  house,  the  suburban  house,  the  cottage 
and  the  bungalow,  to  say  nothing  of  the  apart- 
ment house.  Each  may  have  any  style.  By  far 
the  most  common  type  in  the  matter  of  numbers 
is  the  suburban  house  of  rather  small  proportions 
which  may  be  either  formal  or  informal.     The 

37 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

formal  house  is  symmetrical  and  prim,  while  the 
informal  is  unsymmetrical  and  rambHng.  (See 
Plates  14  and  15.) 

Future  Houses. — In  the  future,  American 
homes  will  assume  a  chara(fter  more  national 
than  has  yet  been  achieved,  not  so  much  by 
adapting  a  historic  style  to  our  needs  as  by  build- 
ing to  meet  the  requirements  of  everyday  life. 
Increased  culture  develops  the  aesthetic  sense 
so  that  our  desire  for  beautiful  architecture  will 
be  strengthened.  It  follows  that  when  better 
things  are  wanted  by  the  people,  better  things 
will  be  produced.  We  may  believe  that  the 
domestic  architecflure  of  the  United  States  will 
attain  an  excellence  surpassed  by  none. 


38 


Sketch  Ppoblems 

(1)  Make  a  pi(5lure  of  a  pioneer's  log  cabin. 

(2)  Sketcii  Mt.  Vernon,  the  home  of  George  Washing- 
ton. 

(3)  Draw  a  typical  plan  of  a  New  England  Colonial 
house  built  about  1730.  Make  drawing  at  scale  of  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  equals  one  foot. 

References 

Ware  (Editor). — ^The  Georgian  Period. 
Eberlein. — Colonial  Architedture  in  America. 
Bevier. — ^The  House. 
Dow. — American  Renaissance. 
Isham  and  Brown. — Early  Connecfticut  Houses. 
Lambeth  and  Manning. — Thomas  Jefferson  as  an  Archi- 
tecft  and  Designer  of  Landscapes. 

Northend. — Colonial  Homes  and  their  Furnishings. 
Embury  H. — One  Hundred  Country  Houses. 


39 


CHAPTER  III.    BUILDING  SITES 

GENERAL  Considerations. — In  the  selec- 
tion of  a  building  site,  it  is  well  to  be 
guided  at  first  by  the  aesthetic  sense, 
and  later  by  business  sense.  Since  the 
site  Is  essentially  the  location  for  a  home,  it  is 
important  that  it  be  pleasing.  A  vision  of  the 
thing  as  it  can  be  is  the  first  requisite,  and  a 
business-like  working  out  of  the  thing  as  it  will 
be  is  the  second.  Familiarity  with  the  distri(5l, 
town  or  city  is  much  to  be  desired  before  choosing 
a  site.  It  is  only  after  a  long  acquaintance  that 
close  discrimination  is  possible. 

People  have  a  natural  tendency  to  form  cliques, 
bands,  circles  and  societies  based  upon  race,  fam- 
ily, means,  common  interests,  personal  tastes  and 
occupations.  In  the  selecflion  of  a  site,  it  is  well 
to  choose  the  location  of  the  future  home  where 
the  surroundings  will  be  congenial.  Neighbors 
with  progressive  tendencies  are  desirable,  such 
tendencies  being  evidenced  by  the  appearance 
of  the  house  and  grounds  in  every  respecft. 

The  future  of  a  districft  is  very  important.  It 
is  difficult  to  say  definitely  what  strides  a  com- 
munity may  take,  or  what  development  may 
come  to  pass.  This  is  a  case,  then,  for  judgment, 
but  at  all  times  there  is  an  elenient  of  speculation 
in  a  real  estate  transacflion.  Cost  is  vital  to 
most  prospedlive  buyers.  The  cost  of  a  property 
depends  upon  its  popularity,  advantages,  and 
many  other  elements.  Property  often  has  a 
ficftitious  value  brought  about  sometimes  by 
booms,  against  which  value  it  is  well  to  guard, 
since  it  is  not  maintained  for  long. 

40 


BUILDING  SITES 

Public  Utilities. — ^The  condition  of  streets,  pub- 
lic roads,  private  roads  and  alleys  should  be 
investigated,  and  an  authentic  map  of  the  dis- 
tridt  studied.  Moreover,  such  questions  as  the 
future  upkeep,  improvement  and  grading  should 
be  satisfac5lorily  answered.  In  some  cases  roads 
which  are  generally  supposed  to  be  public  high- 
ways are  only  private  lanes,  and  do  not  come  un- 
der the  attention  of  the  city,  but  must  be  main- 
tained by  the  property  owners.  Pavements, 
sidewalks,  and  curbs  should  be  investigated.  In 
many  instances  these  strucflures  have  been  put  in 
place,  but  have  not  yet  been  paid  for,  the  owners 
benefited  thereby  being  subjedled  to  periodical 
assessments  for  the  payment  of  the  same. 

Transportation  by  public  vehicles  is  also  an 
important  question.  The  nearness  and  routes 
of  the  cars  and  like  conveyances  will  be  an  im- 
portant consideration  in  everyday  going  and 
coming.  Water,  light  and  heat  are,  in  many 
cases,  supplied  by  municipal  or  private  plants, 
so  it  is  well  to  investigate  these  in  order  to  be 
satisfied  that  the  water  is  pure  and  constant, 
and  that  the  light  and  heat,  whether  of  gas  or 
eledlricity,  are  reliable.  In  some  communities  a 
local  heating  plant  supplies  steam  radiation  to 
all  residences.  This  scheme  is  a  good  one,  and 
has  been  successfully  operated  in  many  cases. 
The  capacity  and  durability  of  the  sewers  should 
also  be  Investigated.  Street  cleaning  and  refuse 
hauling  should  be  taken  care  of  by  the  city  at 
regular  intervals,  so  as  to  insure  a  sanitary  con- 
dition. Police  and  fire  protection  are  of  impor- 
tance as  well. 

41 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Conveniences. — ^Among  the  conveniences  which 
may  be  expe(5led  in  a  suburban  districft,  which 
are  not  perhaps  utilities,  are  the  church,  parks, 
school,  clubs  and  shopping  facilities.  The 
church,  if  a  certain  one  is  preferred,  should  be 
within  walking  distance  of  the  home  if  possible, 
since  the  neighborhood  church  is  often  considered 
to  be  the  ideal  church.  However,  a  neighbor- 
hood full  of  churches  is  not  a  thing  to  be  desired, 
since  they  pra<ftically  become  annoyances  to  the 
residents.  Parks,  if  well  kept  up,  are  very  de- 
sirable, especially  for  children.  Much  of  the 
property  facing  suburban  parks  is  for  sale  only 
at  an  extremely  high  figure,  since  the  owners 
consider  that  the  park  across  the  way  improves 
the  outlook  and  consequently  the  value  of  the 
property  very  much.  Public  schools,  and  per- 
haps private  schools  as  well,  should  be  within 
easy  walking  distance  for  the  children.  The  way 
to  the  school  should  not  lie  through  an  unde- 
sirable part  of  the  city,  either  on  account  of 
unsafe  or  unsanitary  streets  or  inferior  neigh- 
borhood. The  way  to  and  from  school  should 
be  the  brightest  and  cleanest  possible  to  attain. 

Natural  Advantages. — ^Among  the  natural  ad- 
vantages may  be  named  exposure  to  sun  and 
wind,  view,  both  distant  and  near,  shade  trees 
of  large  size,  drainage,  sanitary  conditions,  soils, 
and  opportunities  for  landscaping.  Exposure 
to  sun  and  wind  varies  in  each  case,  but  in  any 
event  it  is  well  to  consider  the  question  from 
every  angle.  Some  people  prefer  a  southern  or 
eastern  front,  and  others  prefer  a  northern  or 
western,  so  that  the  whole  matter  resolves  itself 

42 


BUILDING  SITES 
into  individual  whim.  However,  each  side  of 
the  building  has  its  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages, as  well  as  its  especial  uses,  and  no  matter 
whether  a  house  faces  east  or  west,  we  still  have 
the  sun  to  either  benefit  or  hamper  us  according 
to  our  wisdom  in  arranging  the  rooms.  In  re- 
gard to  distant  view,  it  has  been  said  that  some 
property  sells  more  for  the  things  that  may  be 
seen  from  it  than  for  its  adlual  worth.  This  is 
true  to  quite  an  extent,  but  undoubtedly  view 
is  worth  something,  and  sometimes  very  much 
indeed. 

Old  shade  trees  already  upon  a  property  are 
of  great  value,  and  should  be  preserved  in  every 
case.  In  fadt,  a  shade  tree  well  placed  and  in 
good  condition  may  be  worth  several  hundred 
dollars  or  may  even  be  of  inestimable  value  be- 
cause if  destroyed  could  not  be  replaced.  Nat- 
ural drainage  is  to  be  desired,  and  although 
pracftically  any  tradl  of  land  may  be  drained,  a 
tracft  from  which  the  water  flows  naturally  is 
much  better,  and  is  invariably  a  more  attractive 
spot.  Swamps  or  low  stretches  of  land  should 
be  avoided.  It  is  better  to  be  entirely  out  of 
proximity  to  them.  Flies,  mosquitoes,  and  other 
inse(fls  and  pests  may  usually  be  traced  to  a 
condition  of  dampness  and  filth. 

Soils,  especially  on  large  lots  of  natural  beauty, 
are  exceedingly  important.  On  small  lots  a  sur- 
face of  good  soil  may  quite  easily  be  artificially 
placed.  Lots  whereon  refuse  matter  has  been 
placed,  or  even  old  soil  hauled  and  dumped,  are 
not  very  desirable,  because  it  takes  many  years 
for  an   artificial   soil  of  considerable  depth   to 

43 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

pack  thoroughly  hard  and  settle  so  as  to  main- 
tain the  foundations  of  a  strucfture.  In  such  a 
case,  however,  the  foundations  should  penetrate 
to  the  original  soil  to  secure  a  bearing.  Many 
things  make  for  a  successful  ground  or  garden 
treatment,  but  especial  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  matter  of  landscaping. 

City  Lots. — City  lots  differ  from  suburban  lots 
in  that  they  are  situated  in  a  part  of  the  city 
long  established.  The  lots  usually  reach  by  de- 
grees a  maximum  worth,  depending  upon  the 
characfter,  growth,  and  the  popularity  of  the 
neighborhood,  after  which  that  whole  secflion 
of  the  city  deteriorates  in  the  thing  for  which 
it  was  once  known,  and  the  lots  gradually  de- 
crease in  value  until  at  last  they  are  not  salable 
unless  a  business  distri<fl  has  supplanted  a  resi- 
dence distri(5t.  A  number  of  years  usually  elapses 
before  this  phenomenon  is  complete.  Values 
of  city  lots  at  any  given  time  are  determined  by 
the  chara(5ler  of  the  neighborhood  and  its  resi- 
dents. Usually  in  the  seledlion  of  a  city  lot, 
the  main  consideration  is  social  environment, 
and  all  other  things  are  made  subservient  to  it. 
In  such  neighborhoods,  that  is,  highly  respe(5ta- 
ble  neighborhoods,  minor  considerations  or  de- 
tails of  everyday  service  are  taken  care  of  scien- 
tifically and  usually  in  an  artificial  manner. 

Suburban  Lots. — Surburban  lots  are  by  far 
the  most  common,  and  may  be  said  to  include 
not  only  city  suburban  lots,  but  building  sites 
in  small  towns.  Cost,  of  course,  is  an  important 
consideration,  since  prices  of  suburban  lots  vary 
from  one  hundred  to  ten  thousand  dollars  or 

44 


BUILDING  SITES 
more.  This  consideration  would  then,  of  course, 
be  very  important.  The  common  size  for  a 
suburban  lot  is  fifty  feet  by  one  hundred  feet, 
but  in  many  suburban  districts  both  the  streets 
and  the  building  sites  are  laid  out  irregularly, 
and  the  lots  are  apt  to  be  more  square  in  pro- 
portion, approximating,  perhaps,  one  hundred  by 
one  hundred  feet.  The  general  lay  of  suburban 
lots  is  important,  but  judgment  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  individual  taste,  except  for  the  principles 
of  natural  advantages,  generally  accepted.  Al- 
leys and  private  ways  from  the  standpoint  of 
service  will  be  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  adiual  living  experience  on  the  home 
site.  An  alley  in  the  rear  not  only  saves  the 
expense  of  a  private  service  way  from  the  front, 
but  is  also  more  economical  from  nearly  every 
standpoint.  Such  an  alley  becomes  the  service 
way  for  a  whole  block  of  houses,  and  incidentally 
should  be  cared  for  by  all  who  have  the  benefit 
of  it,  as  well  as  by  the  city. 

Of  the  natural  advantages  of  a  suburban  lot, 
perhaps  the  slope  of  the  ground  is  the  most 
important.  Ordinarily  a  slope  toward  the  street, 
with  a  mild  or  gradual  incline,  is  best,  espe- 
cially since  it  eliminates  the  necessity  of  artificial 
grading,  terracing  or  retaining  of  earth.  Lots 
sloping  to  one  side  or  the  other  may  be  desirable 
if  other  natural  conditions  are  right.  In  all 
cases  it  is  well  to  have  natural  drainage.  Lots 
sloping  away  from  the  street  are  in  many  cases 
undesirable.  However,  with  some,  unique  land- 
scape treatments  are  possible  which  will  correct 
the  original  unlikely  lay  of  the  land.     When 

45 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  grade  from  the  street  to  the  location  of  the 
future  house  is  slight,  a  fill  of  earth  may  be  used 
to  bring  about  the  desired  fall  of  land  away  from 
the  house  to  the  street,  If  the  slope  is  great, 
then  perhaps  the  proper  treatment  would  be  to 
make  the  main  facade  of  the  building  toward  the 
rear,  that  is  to  say,  make  a  garden  front.  In 
all  probability  the  distant  outlook  from  this  side 
of  the  house  would  be  superior  to  that  of  the 
other  sides.  Often  the  most  pleasing  results  in 
landscaping  of  small  places  is  obtained  from 
eccentric  conditions.     (See  Plate  47.) 

In  a  comparison  between  corner  lots  and  in- 
side lots,  each  has  its  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages, perhaps  divided  equally,  but  the  corner 
lot  usually  is  held  for  sale  at  a  higher  figure. 
In  the  case  of  the  corner  lot,  a  house  may  be  set 
ofi"  as  an  objecfl  for  view  to  a  much  better  ad- 
vantage than  on  an  inside  lot,  but  home  privacy 
is  lost  to  a  great  extent.  Since  a  house  is  not  on 
exhibition,  the  idea  of  display  is  fundamentally 
wrong.  A  house  should  be  set  off  to  give  it  a 
private  appearance  rather  than  a  public.  To 
insure  privacy  on  the  corner  lot,  it  is  usually 
found  necessary  to  build  a  screen  on  the  less 
desirable  street  side,  which  may  be  a  wall  of 
masonry,  a  hedge,  a  lattice  or  other  feature  of 
landscape  gardening.  Assessments  on  a  corner 
lot  are  higher  than  on  an  inside  lot. 

Most  good  lots  in  a  suburb  have  placed  upon 
them  certain  restridlions  relative  to  buildings. 
Of  these  restri(flions  the  common  ones  are  the 
cost  of  the  building  itself,  which  must  exceed  a 
stipulated   amount,   the   charac5ler  or   architec- 

46 


BUILDING  SITES 

tural  style  of  the  building,  the  distance  of  the 
building  from  the  street  and  from  the  side  lot 
lines  as  well,  the  kind  of  walks  and  drives  to  be 
used,  the  method  of  grading,  and  the  exclusion 
of  all  buildings  except  private  residences.  Al- 
though restricftions  may  appear  to  a  prospedlive 
buyer  as  an  interference  with  his  rights,  never- 
theless temperate  restricflions  are  a  distindt  ad- 
vantage to  the  permanent  resident.  Restric- 
tions are  placed  upon  a  certain  "addition"  or 
secftion  of  the  city  for  a  stated  length  of  time  by 
the  property  owner  or  owners.  Any  subsequent 
owner  within  the  same  length  of  time  must  com- 
ply with  these  restricftions  under  penalty  of 
reversion  of  title  to  the  former  owner. 

Sites  for  Country  Places. — In  the  selection  of 
a  tra(5l  of  land  for  a  country  home  the  natural 
advantages  are  all-important.  Of  course  the 
public  highway  and  the  private  road  should  be 
kept  in  mind,  since  the  approach  of  a  country 
place  is  an  important  feature.  The  condition 
of  the  public  highway  and  the  distance  from  the 
site,  the  chara<5ler  or  use  of  the  vicinity,  and  the 
future  of  it  are  also  important.  Of  the  natural 
advantages  the  first  consideration  should  be 
topography;  the  second,  trees  and  other  plants; 
the  third,  distant  view;  the  fourth,  soil;  and  the 
fifth,  exposure  to  elements.  Here,  above  all 
places,  the  aesthetic  sense  should  control  the 
choice  of  a  location. 

In  many  localities,  acreage  or  small  tracfls 
of  land  of  an  acre  or  more  are  sold  for  the  purpose 
of  being  used  as  a  small  farm  or  ranch  or  for  the 
purpose  of  speculation,  assuming  that  at  a  future 

47 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

time  this  same  tracft  will  be  salable  as  town  or 
suburban  lots.  Acreage  is  often  sold  at  a  iidti- 
tious  value,  more  often  perhaps  than  any  other 
kind  of  real  estate.  Acreage,  then,  is  not  usually 
a  good  investment,  but  may  be  if  bought  at  the 
real  value  and  used  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  best  adapted.  Therefore  the  soil,  drainage 
and  other  points  that  pertain  to  agriculture  are 
of  the  greatest  importance. 

Farm  Sites. — ^A  large  number  of  considera- 
tions determine  the  best  location  for  the  house 
on  the  farm.  Perhaps  the  highway  and  the  facil- 
ities for  getting  to  all  parts  of  the  farm  at  any 
time  are  the  main  determining  fadlors.  A  farm- 
house should  be  placed  upon  an  elevated  part 
of  the  ranch  or  farm,  and  should  preferably  be 
placed  in  a  grove  of  trees.  These  two  things, 
however,  usually  coincide,  since  knolls  are  quite 
often  wooded.  Moreover,  such  a  knoll  is  not 
valuable  for  the  purpose  of  cultivation.  Trees 
provide  not  only  a  background  to  improve  the 
appearance  of  the  farmhouse,  but  provide  also 
shelter  from  the  cold  winds  of  winter  and  the 
heat  of  summer.  In  facft,  a  good  grove  moderates 
all  kinds  of  weather,  which  is  of  benefit  not  only 
to  the  family,  but  to  the  live  stock,  which  is 
necessarily  housed  not  a  great  distance  from  the 
farm  residence.  Outbuildings  'should  be  so 
placed  as  to  have  natural  drainage,  and  should 
be  set  an  appreciable  distance  from  the  house, 
for  sanitary  reasons.  Prevailing  winds  should 
blow  from  the  outbuildings  away  from  the  house 
rather  than  toward  it.  Circulation  or  means  of 
hauling  and  handling  of  live  stock  should  be  fully 

48 

f 


BUILDING  SITES 

provided  in  the  lay-out  of  a  farm  place.  A  con- 
venient means  of  circulation  will  save  in  a  few 
years  the  cost  of  all  extra  roads,  fences  and 
gates,  and  moreover  the  convenience  then  es- 
tablished is  ready  for  permanent  use.  An  im- 
portant item  of  consideration  is  the  water  supply. 
In  many  instances  it  is  the  first  consideration, 
so  that  houses  have  been  built  in  the  lowest  part 
of  a  tract  of  land  simply  because  a  spring  of  water 
existed  there.  Natural  advantages  and  neces- 
sities cannot  be  overestimated.    (See  Plate  48.) 


49 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  a  plan  of  a  favorite  building  site  and  note  on 
the  drawing  by  means  of  lettering  the  reasons  for  its  de- 
sirability. Make  drawing  at  the  scale  of  one  inch  equals 
ten  feet,  approximately. 

(2)  Draw  an  undesirable  building  site  with  which  you 
are  familiar  and  note  the  reasons  for  its  undesirability. 

(3)  Make  a  map  showing  an  ideal  arrangement  of  lots, 
streets,  and  alleys  for  a  suburban  distri(ft.  Show  size 
of  lots  and  widths  of  streets  and  alleys,  also  widths  of 
public  walks,  parkings,  pavements,  etc.  The  drawing  is 
to  show  from  four  to  six  blocks  at  convenient  scale  and  is 
to  have  noted  upon  it  such  conditions  as  slope  of  ground, 
dire(5lions  and  natural  assets. 

References 

Kellaway. — How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds. 
White.— Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them. 


SO 


CHAPTER  IV.    HOUSE  DESIGN 

GENERAL  Considerations. — In  the  design 
of  a  particular  house  perhaps  the  first 
consideration  is  cost,  for  although  a 
small  family  may  have  a  house  of  seven 
rooms  costing  twenty  thousand  dollars,  a  family 
of  equal  size  may  also  have  a  house  of  seven 
rooms  costing  only  two  thousand  dollars.  The 
latter  house  may  or  may  not  have  the  same 
amount  of  floor  area  as  the  former.  Thus  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  to  some  extent  in  the 
beginning  the  size  and  quality  of  the  house  in 
order  to  arrive  at  the  cost.  Such  facftors  as 
kinds  of  rough  materials,  method  of  construc- 
tion, finish,  fixtures  and  equipment  are  the  most 
important.  In  an  ordinary  house  where  the 
maximum  floor  area  is  necessary,  quality  must 
be  sacrificed  and  expensive  parts  omitted  to  a 
great  extent.  In  a  house  where  elegance  is  es- 
sential, floor  area  becomes  secondary  and  equip- 
ment and  finish  important. 

Types  of  Plans. — Usually  the  exa(5t  type  of 
plan  to  be  used  is  not  determined  until  a  build- 
ing site  has  been  seledled,  which  is  highly  proper. 
Lots  are  of  pracliically  every  shape,  and  it  is 
always  necessary  to  adapt  the  house  plan  or 
lay-out  of  the  building  to  this  given  shape. 
Broad  lots  may  readily  accommodate  the  type 
of  plan  in  which  the  broad  sides  of  the  house 
face  the  street  in  front,  and  a  garden,  perhaps, 
in  the  rear.  Narrow  lots  necessarily  must  have 
a  type  of  plan  in  which  the  end  of  the  house 
faces  the  street,  unless  the  house  is  very  small 
indeed.     Usuallj^  such  houses  should  have  the 

SI 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

entrance,  not  at  the  extreme  front,  but  halfway 
down  one  side,  so  that  the  entrance  will  be  more 
in  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  thereby  allow 
more  free  and  economical  circulation  or  means 
of  reaching  the  various  rooms.  Large,  roomy 
lots  will  allow  a  type  of  plan  of  almost  any 
regular  or  irregular  shape,  and  quite  often  sug- 
gest a  rambling  plan  for  the  house.  The  natural 
conditions  of  the  lot  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  every  case  before  determining  the 
plan  or  style  of  the  house.  Grade,  permanent 
trees,  exposure  to  sun  and  wind,  and  all  like 
elements  are  very  important. 

Individuality. — Individuality  in  a  house  is 
beyond  description.  To  attain  it  it  is  well  to 
plan  alone  rather  than  to  consult  intimates  or 
examine  precedents.  In  this  solitary  planning, 
which  may  extend  over  a  period  of  years,  a 
large  number  of  elements  pertaining  to  private 
life  enter  into  the  matter.  First  comes  the  ac- 
tual use  of  the  house  by  the  various  members  of 
the  family,  both  for  the  immediate  and  for  the 
distant  future.  The  habits  of  each  individual 
who  is  to  occupy  the  house  should  receive  due 
consideration,  and  that  individual  should  be 
made  comfortable  and  happy  by  a  special  ar- 
rangement of  the  things  which  he  is  to  use  al- 
most exclusively.  To  enumerate  some  of  them, 
the  shape  and  size  of  his  bedroom,  sleeping  porch, 
dressing  room  and  wardrobe,  and  the  propor- 
tion and  detail  of  his  bookcase,  secretary,  table, 
fireplace  and  window  seat  are  important.  By 
designing  a  house  to  meet  the  exa(5l  requirements 
of  the   family,    individuality  will   be   attained. 

52 


"O 

lU   - 

to 

»•-) 

< 

i;_ 

1 

t*i 

M 

c^ 

5: 

F 

1 

0 

1 

v> 

2^  - 

-ciwl 

iJ 

Irt 

z: 

13 

0 

l< 

V-^  ^  I  I    i    I    I 


—5 


Plate  II 
Diagrams  Showing  Architectural  Composition 


53 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Other  things  less  tangible  than  these  may  be 
individually  expressed.  Occasionally  the  general 
spirit  or  feeling  of  an  entire  building  suggests 
the  personality  of  the  designer. 

Character  of  Exteriors. — ^The  characfter  of  build- 
ing preferred  by  the  owner  is  of  importance 
in  house  design.  However,  a  certain  preferred 
chara(fter  or  style  of  architecfture  may  not  al- 
ways be  compatible  with  the  neighboring  build- 
ings, or  with  the  lay  of  the  land.  In  all  cases, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  architec- 
tural styles  of  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  also 
to  consider  what  kind  of  a  building,  whether  of 
horizontal  or  vertical  lines,  would  look  best  upon 
the  chosen  site.  The  material  at  hand  may  de- 
termine, to  a  great  extent,  this  characfler,  since 
the  effecftive  use  of  any  material  is  limited.  The 
pitch  of  the  roof,  the  type  of  cornice  or  eaves, 
and  the  detail  of  all  parts  such  as  the  doors, 
windows,  porches,  special  belt  courses  and  water- 
tables,  and  the  facing  of  the  building  go  to 
make  up  the  appearance  of  the  whole.  Each 
historic  style  of  archite(flure  has  forms  peculiar 
to  it.  Exterior  details  of  construcftion,  chief  of 
which  is  the  main  cornice  or  crowning  member 
of  the  building,  have  certain  fun(ftions  and  are 
rarely  used  simply  as  ornaments.  The  fun(5lion 
of  the  cornice  is  to  carry  the  gutter  at  the  edge 
of  the  roof  and  to  form  an  eaves  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  wall  below.  Originally  the  cornice  was 
constru(5ted  upon  the  rafter  ends  as  it  is  in  most 
cases  to-day  and  was  a  pracftical  device  to  meet 
weather  conditions.  By  embellishment  it  has 
become  a  very  beautiful  archite(5tural  feature. 

54 


HOUSE  DESIGN 
The  exterior  of  a  building  should  not  only  be 
pleasing  but  should  express  the  spirit  of  the 
design.  Mount  Vernon,  on  the  Potomac,  is 
dear  to  Americans  not  only  because  it  was  the 
home  of  Washington,  but  because  the  lines  of 
the  building  itself  express  purity. 

The  Geometry  of  Plans. — Geometry  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  planning  of  buildings. 
Symmetrical  buildings  usually  assume  a  given 
geometrical  form,  often  designated  as  an  H-plan, 
T-plan,  or  other  combination  of  forms.  The 
original  unit,  which  is  used  to  make  these^  forms, 
is  the  square  or  the  recftangle.  A  recftangle 
should  be  of  good  proportion  in  itself,  one  di- 
mension exceeding  the  other  by  perhaps  one- 
half  or  more,  and  a  square  should  be  a  perfecft 
square.  Circular  forms,  hexagons  and  ocftagons 
are  also  common  units.  These  units  are  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  an  interesting  and 
pleasing  combination,  in  which  operation  a 
centre  line  called  an  axis  or  perhaps  a  number 
of  lines  called  axes  are  used,  in  relation  with 
which  these  units  are  placed.  Ordinarily  the 
dominant  unit  is  placed  first,  and  others  added 
to  it.  In  the  case  of  unsymmetrical  plans,  a 
balance  of  unlike  units  is  sought.  Geometry 
of  plans  applies  not  only  to  the  form  of  the  whole 
building,  but  to  the  form  of  the  individual 
rooms. 

Composition. — ^Architecflural  composition,  like 
any  composition,  consists  of  the  arrangement 
of  parts.  Although  the  exterior  is  commonly 
used  as  the  means  of  judging  a  composition, 
the    geometry    of    the    plan    really    determines 

S5 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

it.  Therefore  the  plans  and  the  elevations 
should  be  studied  together  to  produce  a  good 
design.  The  essentials  of  good  composition 
are  unity  and  balance.  By  unity  is  meant 
the  arrangement  of  parts  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  produce  an  harmonious  whole.  By  balance 
is  meant,  not  necessarily  a  symmetrical  ar- 
rangement, but  an  arrangement  whereby  the 
general  proportions  of  the  building  are  pleasing. 
(See  Plate  ii.) 

Many  principles  of  design  are  involved  in 
archite(5lural  composition.  These  principles  are 
instin(5lively  felt  by  pracftically  everyone,  but 
the  trick  of  applying  them  is  acquired  by  but  a 
few.  Masses  in  general  composition  resemble 
the  geometrical  units  considered  in  plans.  Where 
only  a  few  masses  are  used,  one  should  predomi- 
nate. Where  a  great  number  of  masses  are 
used,  one,  two  or  three  should  predominate. 
Similarity  of  shapes  should  recur.  This  does 
not  mean  similarity  of  sizes,  but  of  forms.  The 
facade  of  a  building  may  consist  of  a  number  of 
planes,  each  having  a  similar  proportion  but  a 
different  size.  The  principle  may  be  applied 
not  only  to  masses,  but  to  panels,  openings,  and 
other  special  features.  Repetition  of  the  same 
detail  is  a  means  of  producing  a  pleasing  effecfl 
in  design.  An  example  of  this  may  be  an  arcade, 
a  colonnade,  or  a  series  of  other  openings  either 
perpendicular  or  horizontal  in  direcflion.  Any 
opening  of  this  type  is  called  a  bay  when  speak- 
ing architedtu rally.  Horizontal  bays  should  be 
one,  three,  five,  seven,  nine  or  eleven  in  number 
rather  than  even  in  number.    Contrast  of  parts 

56 


Plate  12 
Example  of  Symmetrical  Design — First  Floor  Plan 


57 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

is  an  effec5live  means  of  gaining  balance.  A 
slender  tower  at  one  extremity  of  a  building 
may  be  set  up  in  opposition  to  a  heavy,  low 
mass  at  the  other  extremity. 

In  all  designs  the  exterior  should  be  honest, 
that  is,  the  units  there  indicated  by  groups  of 
windows,  bays  and  gables  should  mark  the 
location  of  a  compartment  within.  Ornament, 
mouldings,  and  small  special  details  are  used  to 
enhance  the  beauty  of  the  original  composition. 
Scale  means  the  true  application  of  the  size  of 
the  human  figure  to  architecftural  composition, 
with  regard  to  the  distance  of  any  part  above 
the  ground  and  the  proper  relation  of  parts  of 
the  composition  to  each  other.  Steps,  doorways 
and  balustrades  must  accommodate  people  but 
must  also  conform  to  other  parts  of  the  struc- 
ture. A  balustrade  on  the  ground  may  be  only 
one  foot  high  but  on  top  of  a  high  building  may 
be  five  feet  high.  In  both  cases  it  serves  its 
funcflion  and  is  in  scale.  The  ordinary  balustrade 
is  of  the  proper  height  to  prevent  one  from  fall- 
ing and  to  be  a  convenient  hand  rail.  A  ceiling 
or  an  arch  need  be  only  seven  feet  high  to  allow 
head  room  but  may  be  many  times  higher  in  a 
monumental  strucfture  for  the  sake  of  impression. 

Arrangement  of  Rooms. — In  the  arrangement 
of  rooms,  space  economy  is  essential.  Per- 
haps the  main  consideration  in  laying  out  the 
rooms  is  to  provide  free  circulation  or  means 
of  getting  from  one  part  of  the  house  to  another 
with  the  least  possible  fricftion  and  waste  of 
steps.  The  hall  is  the  chief  means  of  circulation. 
From  it  pracftically  all  rooms  on  the  first  and 

58 


Plate   13 
Example  of  Symmetrical  Design — Second  Floor  Plan 


59 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

second  floors  should  be  reached.  In  many 
instances  it  is  convenient  to  have  both  a  front 
and  a  back  hall  which  should  be  connedled. 
Stairways  should  almost  invariably  be  diredl 
from  halls  rather  than  from  rooms.  A  very 
useful  feature  in  houses  is  the  grade  door  which 
opens  at  the  grade  of  the  yard  or  garden  onto 
a  landing  from  which  place  a  stairs  leads  to  the 
basement  and  a  short  flight  of  steps  to  the  main 
floor.  A  grade  door  should  usually  be  close  to 
the  kitchen,  thereby  allowing  one  basement  stair- 
way in  the  house  to  answer  all  purposes.  (See 
Plate  20.) 

Beyond  this  fundlion  of  circulation,  the  hall 
has  little  use  except  sometimes  as  a  means  of 
air  circulation  and  as  a  place  for  receiving  guests. 
In  regard  to  the  former,  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  all  of  the  warm  air  of  the  house  from 
escaping  to  the  upper  story.  In  regard  to  the 
latter  use,  the  hall  must  be  made  large  enough 
to  serve  as  a  reception  hall.  In  pretentious 
houses  it  is  well  to  have  a  reception  room  in 
immediate  proximity  to  the  hall  and  main  en- 
trance. This  room  should  be,  usually,  small  and 
formal  and  of  a  symmetrical  design.  In  certain 
types  of  houses,  especially  very  informal  ones, 
halls  are  not  absolutely  essential. 

The  various  parts  of  a  house  relative  to  their 
acflual  use  should  be  segregated.  These  parts 
ordinarily  consist  of  the  living  apartments,  the 
sleeping  apartments,  and  the  dining  and  cooking 
apartments.  In  many  cases  other  apartments 
such  as  rooms  for  servants  or  hired  help  will  be 
found  necessary. 

60 


I,  (/  5  C  O    ; 

z  2  i  2  f-  e 


"Sill 


Ofc- 


V-) 

O 

z: 
< 

:3 
o 


Plate  14 
Example  of  Symmetrical  Design — Street  Elevation 


61 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Living  Apartments. — Rooms  used  in  only  a  few 
houses  and  of  minor  importance  are  parlors, 
tea  rooms,  billiard  rooms,  and  sometimes  smok- 
ing rooms.  A  parlor  or  a  tea  room  should  be 
near  the  reception  room  or  hall.  A  billiard  or 
a  smoking  room  should  be  near  the  dining  room, 
or  isolated  completely  from  other  living  apart- 
ments of  the  house. 

The  library  in  many  houses  is  an  important 
room.  Since  libraries  are  used  more  or  less 
individually,  this  room  may  be  somewhat  iso- 
lated, but  still  within  reach  from  the  main 
entrance  in  case  the  occupant  is  in  the  habit  of 
receiving  callers  in  that  place.  Music  rooms, 
dens,  offices,  art  and  other  museums  are  some- 
what of  the  nature  of  libraries,  and  should  be 
set,  perhaps,  a  little  aside  from  the  regular 
rooms.  The  main  hall  may  be  used  as  an  art 
gallery,  for  a  few  impersonal  pieces. 

In  the  ordinary  house,  the  living  room  takes 
the  place  of  pracftically  all  of  the  above  named 
rooms,  so  that  it  should  really  combine  the  uses 
of  them  all.  If  in  the  house  there  is  no  library, 
a  certain  portion  of  the  living  room  should  be 
set  aside  in  a  cosy  fashion  containing  bookcases 
where  one  may  read  comfortably.  If  in  the 
house  there  is  no  music  room,  then  an  inside 
wall  of  the  living  room  should  be  especially  de- 
signed and  reserved  for  a  piano,  and  music 
cabinet.  Since  the  living  room  is  occupied  for  a 
large  part  of  the  day  by  the  woman  of  the  house, 
it  may  be  well  to  fit  a  particular  part  of  that 
room  with  the  paraphernalia  needed  in  ordinary 
sewing  work,  so  that  the  room  also  becomes  a 

62 


r-y  \  \A^  '  '  '  '  \  ,  '  '  '      ' 


Plate  15 
Example  of  Unsymmetrical  Design 


63 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

sewing  room.  Sometimes  a  writing  desk,  or 
secretary,  is  desirable  in  a  living  room.  In  many 
small  houses,  the  dining  room  is  left  out  of  the 
design,  so  that  a  living  room  may  even  become 
the  dining  room  as  well.  Thus,  the  deducftion  is 
that  a  living  room  should  be  a  room  in  which  to 
•  live  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  the  variations 
in  its  arrangement  depending  upon  the  other 
rooms  of  the  house,  and  the  habits  of  the  family. 
The  living  room  should  occupy  the  most  desir- 
able part  of  the  house  from  the  standpoint  of  ex- 
posure to  sun  and  view. 

Sleeping  Apartments  and  Accessories. — Bed- 
rooms should,  first  of  all,  be  so  placed  as  to  be 
well  ventilated.  To  accomplish  this  end,  it  is 
well  to  have  windows  on  two  sides  of  the  room 
whenever  possible.  The  ceilings  should  not  be 
too  low,  nor  the  top  of  the  windows  too  far  below 
the  ceiling  itself.  Casement  windows  or  hinged 
windows  are  preferable  to  double  hung  or  sliding 
windows,  since  the  full  capacity  of  the  window 
opening  may,  in  the  first  instance,  be  utilized 
for  air  circulation.  A  bedroom  should  always 
have  a  closet  or  a  built-in  wardrobe.  In  recent 
years,  the  sleeping  porch  has  assumed  a  new 
importance  in  all  secftions  of  the  country,  so  that 
the  former  bedroom  becomes  more  of  a  dressing 
room  than  a  sleeping  chamber.  A  sleeping  porch 
is  better  placed  on  the  second  floor  than  on  the 
first,  because  the  quality  of  air  is  better  at  a 
distance  above  the  ground.  Moreover,  an  upper 
sleeping  porch  is  more  private  and  less  exposed 
to  odors,  insecfts  and  other  nuisances.  A  porch 
of  this  kind  should  be  open  on  three  sides  if 

64 


Plate  i6 

An  Adaptation  from  Early  New  England  Architecture 


65 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

possible,  but  should  have  windows  or  other 
screens  which  may  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  condi- 
tion of  wind,  heat  and  cold.  The  floor  of  the 
sleeping  porch  may  be  treated  much  as  the  deck 
of  a  boat,  to  avoid  leakage  of  rain  water  to  parts 
below.  A  small  dressing  room  in  connedlion 
with  the  bedroom  proper  is  a  great  convenience, 
and  should  be  in  close  proximity  to  the  bathroom. 
A  dressing  room,  to  be  of  the  greatest  use,  should 
be  fully  equipped  with  a  built-in  wardrobe, 
dressing  table,  chair,  mirrors  and  other  fixtures 
used  by  the  particular  individual  who  is  to  have 
the  room. 

A  bathroom,  when  not  designed  especially 
for  the  use  of  the  occupant  of  a  particular  bed- 
room, should  be  entered  from  a  hall,  and  the 
fixtures  should  be  so  placed  as  to  avoid  nooks 
and  corners,  which  are  difficult  of  access  and 
consequently  hard  to  keep  clean.  The  bathroom 
floor  and  walls  should  be  of  waterproof  material, 
as  far  as  possible,  tile  being  the  best  and  of 
course  the  most  expensive.  If  the  bathtub  itself 
can  be  built  of  tile  and  become  a  part  of  the  tile 
construction,  the  condition  is  most  sanitary  and 
satisfactory.  If  possible,  it  is  well  to  provide  a 
floor  drain,  either  in  the  centre  of  the  floor  or 
by  allowing  the  floor  to  slope  gently  in  one 
direction  or  toward  a  corner.  A  bathroom 
should  be  provided  with  a  towel  closet  and 
medicine  case,  by  all  means,  and  other  cases  or 
closets  when  such  fixtures  are  desired.  It  is 
often  quite  convenient  to  have  the  clothes  chute 
in  the  bathroom  wall,  since  perhaps  the  most 
inconvenient   handling  of   soiled    clothes    is    in 

66 


Plate  17 
A  Practical  Design 


67 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

connedlion  with  this  room.  The  supply  of 
bedroom  linen  should  be  kept  in  a  special  closet 
within  reach  of  all  the  bedrooms,  and  at  a  point 
convenient  fqr  bringing  it  in  from  the  laundry 
or  sorting  room.  Usually  in  a  two-story  house 
the  linen  closet  is  best  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
rear  stairs.  Among  the  accessories  of  bedrooms 
are  the  store  room  and  trunk  room,  which,  like 
the  linen  closet,  should  be  in  a  convenient  place, 
however  small,  rather  than  in  a  remote  corner. 

A  room  which  can  at  some  time  be  conven- 
iently used  as  a  nursery  and  later  as  a  child's 
room,  may  very  well  be  incorporated  in  the 
sleeping  apartments  of  a  house.  It  should  be  in 
a  favored,  sunny  spot,  open  to  the  bath  and  to  a 
sleeping  porch,  if  possible,  for  the  use  of  the 
child.  It  should  never  be  subjedl  to  cold  drafts 
from  doors  or  windows.  The  room  may  have 
miniature  fittings  and  decorations  to  please  the 
fancy  of  a  small  boy  or  girl.  It  is  often  worth 
while  to  put  this  room  adjacent  to  a  downstairs 
bedroom. 

Dining  and  Cooking  Apartments. — ^The  design 
of  the  dining  room  varies  almost  as  much  as 
that  of  the  thoroughly  discussed  kitchen.  This 
room  is  considered  by  some  to  be  used  more  at 
night  than  in  the  daytime,  consequently  its  loca- 
tion in  the  house  is  important  only  as  a  place 
in  which  to  dine  and  as  a  place  readily  accessible 
from  the  living  room  and  from  the  kitchen  and 
pantry.  In  all  cases  the  latter  consideration  is 
important.  This  room  is  considered  by  others  to 
be  very  much  a  room  for  sunshine,  consequently 
it  should  have  a  southerly  exposure  with  large 

68 


Plate  i8 
A  Development  of  the  Spanish  Mission 


69 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

windows.  In  such  a  case  a  plant  conservatory 
may  very  readily  be  affixed,  either  of  large  or 
small  dimensions. 

A  kitchen  is  a  workshop,  and  should  be  de- 
signed as  such:  therefore,  such  economic  con- 
siderations as  saving  of  steps  and  other  motions, 
convenience  of  equipment  and  personal  comfort 
of  the  occupant  should  receive  attention.  Sun- 
shine should  reach  every  kitchen,  and  ventilation 
or  cross  draft  of  fresh  air  should  be  provided  for. 
Kitchens  may  be  large  or  small,  depending  upon 
other  conditions.  A  room  nineteen  feet  square 
for  a  kitchen  in  a  tiny  suburban  home  would  be 
as  grossly  out  of  place  as  would  a  room  nine  feet 
square  for  a  kitchen  in  a  farmhouse,  where  the 
farmer's  wife  was  obliged  to  serve  a  large  num- 
ber of  hungry  men.  Nevertheless,  each  size, 
one  being  more  than  four  times  as  large  as  the 
other,  is  a  reasonable  size  for  a  kitchen.  There  is 
no  definite  floor  area  that  is  proper  in  every  case. 
A  reasonable  average  size  is  ten  feet  by  twelve 
feet. 

A  kitchen  is  of  such  importance  as  to  receive 
probably  the  second  choice  of  location  in  the 
house,  the  living  room  having  received  first. 
In  the  design  of  a  kitchen  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  life  of  a  house  is  from  twenty  to  a  hun- 
dred years,  or  more,  and  that  the  a(5tual  use  of  a 
kitchen  by  the  same  person  may  undergo  a 
radical  change  in  a  very  few  years.  Causes  for 
such  a  change  might  be  increase  or  decrease  in 
fortune,  which  would  perhaps  mean  the  engaging 
or  releasing  of  servants,  increase  in  family, 
which  necessitates  more  work,  and  often  change 

70 


Plate  19 
Design  Emphasizing  the  Side  Entrance 


71 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

of  opinion  brought  about  by  scientific  investiga- 
tion or  popular  notion.  Moreover,  the  absence 
from  home  of  a  number  of  the  inmates  of  the 
house  may  cause  a  radical  change  in  the  domestic 
routine.  Sometimes  the  absence  becomes  per- 
manent, and  a  house  designed  for  many  to  live 
in  is  left  for  the  sole  occupation  of  one  or  two. 
The  advent  of  one  or  more  public  utilities  might 
change  the  working  scheme  of  a  kitchen.  Chang- 
ing conditions  cannot  be  absolutely  counted 
upon,  and  preadjusted.  Eccentricity  of  the 
kitchen  plan  should  be  avoided,  kitchens  being 
built  along  somewhat  conventional  lines,  since 
the  eccentric  kitchen  may  cause  a  house  to  be 
unsalable,  as  well  as  unsuitable  to  other  workers. 
Kitchen  for  the  Very  Small  Suburban  House. — 
The  kitchen  occupied  by  the  housewife  for  a 
comparatively  short  time  each  day  while  she 
performs  the  light  kitchen  duties  required  in  a 
little  house  may  be  very  small  indeed,  and 
usually  the  smaller  the  better.  In  this  type  of 
kitchen  the  economic  principles  of  kitchen 
design  should  be  applied  stringently,  so  that  the 
range,  sink,  work  table,  china  cupboard,  re- 
frigerator, and  service  to  the  dining  room  should 
have  the  proper  economic  relation.  The  saving 
of  steps  is  especially  important  when  the  work 
of  the  house  is  done  by  the  housewife  herself. 
Usually  a  service  pantry  is  not  desirable  in  a 
small  house,  a  service  cupboard  opening  from 
both  the  dining  room  and  kitchen  being  a  great 
labor-saving  device.  The  sink  should  be  ad- 
joining to  the  service  cupboard  counter,  so  that 
the  dishes  having  been  passed  through  from  the 

^^ 


^  °  < 

X  m  o 

H  Z  0-  tfi 

20  j**  2 

«<  r    J  6-  2 

e{  »f  p  k.  w  P- 

<  AU  A  iJ  u. 


Plate  20 
Model  Arrangement  for  the  Farmhouse 


73 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

dining  room  may  be  washed  and  replaced  in 
the  cupboard  ready  for  the  next  meal  with  the 
minimum  amount  of  handling.  The  drain  should 
be  at  the  left  of  the  sink,  with  the  china  cup- 
board above  and  facing  it,  if  possible.  All  of 
the  kitchen  equipment  should  be  compadtly  ar- 
ranged, with  perhaps  a  small  storage  pantry  in 
the  rear  of  the  room.  The  way  to  the  cellar,  to 
the  yard  and  to  the  fuel  supply  should  be  as 
convenient  as  possible,  avoiding  an  excessive 
number  of  steps.     (See  Plate  i6.) 

Kitchen  for  the  Large  Suburban  House. — ^The 
household  work  of  a  large  suburban  house  would 
probably  be  done  by  one  or  more  servants, 
with  perhaps  the  housewife's  assistance  and  su- 
perintendence. Here  more  room  should  be  al- 
lowed in  the  kitchen  proper,  since  the  cook  may 
occupy  this  room  almost  exclusively,  while  a 
serving  maid  or  butler  occupies  the  service  or 
butler's  pantry  at  mealtimes.  In  a  kitchen  of 
this  type  the  line  of  travel  between  the  sink  and 
the  range,  the  supply  room  and  the  sink,  the 
work  table  and  the  sink,  and  in  fact  between  all 
other  fixtures  used  many  times  each  day,  should 
be  the  shortest  distance  possible.  However, 
since  the  room  is  occupied  by  a  certain  individual 
many  hours  at  a  time,  it  should  not  be  uncom- 
fortably small,  which  would  necessarily  cause 
the  room  to  be  hot  and  stifling.  For  this  kitchen 
a  convenient  size  is  thirteen  feet  square.  In  a 
house  of  this  type  the  butler's  pantry  has  a 
distinct  use,  although  the  word  "pass  pantry" 
is  a  better  designation  for  it.  Between  this 
small  room  and  the  kitchen,  a  service  cupboard 

74 


Plate  21 
Design  of  House  for  the  Small  Farm 


75 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

may  be  conveniently  used,  so  that  dishes  to  be 
served  on  the  table  may  be  set  inside  of  it  from 
the  kitchen,  and  taken  to  the  dining  room  by  the 
maid.  Ordinarily  two  double-acftion  or  swing- 
ing doors  connecfting  the  pantry  with  the  dining 
room  and  with  the  kitchen  are  a  convenient 
means  of  circulation.  The  pass  pantry  should 
have  a  sink  for  washing  dishes,  while  the  kitchen 
should  have  a  sink  for  general  purposes.  The 
kitchen  should  either  be  amply  equipped  with 
storage  cupboards,  or  should  have  a  special  stor- 
age pantry  in  the  rear,  as  well  as  a  cool  closet 
or  refrigerator,  and  other  necessary  equipment. 
(See  Plates  22,  23,  24,  25.) 

Kitchen  for  a  Farmhouse. — ^A  kitchen  for  a 
farmhouse  is  more  difficult  to  design  than  any 
other  kitchen,  since  it  is  of  more  relative  im- 
portance and  use.  Although  any  kitchen  is  a 
workshop,  this  room  is  the  seat  of  pracftically 
all  the  operations  of  the  housewife  of  the  farm. 
Not  only  is  a  great  amount  of  cooking  done,  but 
of  necessity  the  laundry  work,  butter  making, 
canning  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  the  thou- 
sand other  duties  of  the  woman  of  the  house  are 
carried  on  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  kitchen 
itself.  Consequently  the  dining  and  cooking 
apartments  must  include  a  space  for  cooking,  a 
space  for  serving,  a  cool  or  milk  room,  a  laundry 
and  wash-up  room,  a  passage  from  the  rear  to  the 
dining  room,  a  stairway,  a  screened  porch,  a  fuel 
room,  and  sometimes  other  lesser  spaces  such  as 
broom  closets,  and  store  rooms. 

Ordinarily  the  kitchen  should  not  be  too  small, 
on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  cooking  so 

76 


Plate  22 
Kitchen  Solution  No.  i 


77 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

often  necessary.  Here,  as  in  all  kitchens,  the 
arrangement  of  fixtures  should  be  economical 
in  order  to  save  steps,  but  on  account  of  many 
doors  which  are  necessary  to  reach  the  other 
workrooms,  the  arrangement  of  the  fixtures  is 
difficult,  oftentimes  causing  the  room  to  be 
somewhat  larger  than  necessary.  However,  the 
kitchen  of  greater  dimensions  is  more  airy  than 
the  kitchen  of  very  small  dimensions.  In  the  best 
designs  a  rear  hall  is  used  as  a  means  of  getting 
to  the  other  workrooms  rather  than  many  doors 
in  the  kitchen  itself.  A  pantry  for  the  storage 
of  food  supplies  is  essential  to  the  farm  kitchen, 
since  supplies  are  usually  purchased  in  quanti- 
ties, and  stored  for  future  use.  Here,  then,  the 
shelves  should  extend  pracftically  to  the  ceiling, 
allowing  space  below  the  bottom  shelf  for  setting 
barrels  and  large  boxes,  in  which  many  supplies 
are  shipped.  Both  store  pantries  and  kitchens 
are  of  a  better  shape  square  than  when  long  and 
narrow.  The  milk  room  is  very  important  in 
farmhouses,  since  the  entire  establishment  must 
depend  upon  its  own  supply  of  milk  and  butter. 
Here  should  be  a  miniature  milk  house  as  used 
by  a  dairy,  having  preferably  a  concrete  floor 
and  containing  perhaps  a  separator,  churn,  milk 
cans  and  crocks,  all  conveniently  and  perma- 
nently provided  for  by  special  space,  shelves, 
and  benches.  This  little  room  should  be  reached 
not  only  from  the  outside,  but  also  from  the 
rear  hall  or  the  kitchen.  It  is  better  to  have  the 
inside  entrance  not  opening  direcftly  from  the 
kitchen  on  account  of  the  heat.  The  laundry 
and  wash-up  room  for  farm  hands  may  be  identi- 

78 


Plate  23 
Kitchen  Solution  No.  2 


79 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

cal,  if  well  placed.  This  room  should  also  have 
a  concrete  or  waterproof  floor,  and  like  the  milk 
room  should  be  reached  from  both  the  outside 
and  the  inside.  Here  should  be  placed,  in  a 
stationary  manner,  laundry  tubs,  washing  ma- 
chine, and  basins.  In  order  to  avoid  the  passage 
of  men  through  the  kitchen  while  cooking  opera- 
tions are  being  carried  on,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  hall  from  the  wash-up  room  to  the  table,  and 
sometimes  to  the  living  or  waiting  room.  One 
rear  hall  should  answer  for  all  purposes. 

The  relation  of  the  kitchen  and  dining  room 
in  the  farmhouse  may  vary  in  a  number  of  ways. 
Originally,  one  large  room,  the  old-fashioned 
farm  kitchen,  was  used  for  both  cooking  and 
dining,  which  perhaps,  after  all,  is  not  far  from 
the  proper  way,  providing  that  the  adjacent 
rooms  are  properly  placed.  With  this  arrange- 
ment as  a  basis,  a  small  alcove  for  cooking 
purposes  has  been  used  which  opens  direcftly 
upon  the  large  room  which  becomes  the  dining 
room.  This  segregates  the  men  at  the  table 
from  the  women  busy  serving  the  meal.  Another 
arrangement  is  to  separate  the  dining  room  and 
the  kitchen  entirely,  as  would  be  done  in  other 
houses.  It  is  often  well  to  have  a  dining  porch 
of  considerable  size  in  a  farmhouse,  thus  allow- 
ing the  dining  room  proper  to  be  much  smaller 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Commonly 
the  largest  number  of  farm  hands  are  employed 
in  the  summer  months  when  this  dining  porch 
could  be  used  almost  exclusively.  This  screened 
porch  may  be  simply  a  large  kitchen  porch  used 
for  general  purposes,  rather  than  a  special  dining 

80 


z: 


Plate  24 
Kitchen  Solution  No.  3 


81 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

porch.  The  kitchen  porch  is  very  important, 
since  much  of  the  preparatory  housework  may 
be  carried  on  here  during  the  busiest  part  of  the 
year.  The  way  to  the  cellar  and  also  to  the 
second  floor  should  be  very  near  to  the  kitchen, 
as  is  also  the  case  in  regard  to  the  fuel  supply, 
since  very  often  each  day  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
build the  fire.    (See  Plate  20.) 

Rooms  for  Servants  or  Hired  Help. — In  the 
dwelling  of  more  than  ordinary  size  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  comfortable  quarters  for  serv- 
ants or  for  hired  help.  In  the  south,  these 
quarters  usually  consist  of  special  outbuildings. 
In  the  west  they  consist  of  what  is  known  as  the 
bunk  house,  but  in  the  east  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  they  usually  consist  of  rooms  in  the  house 
proper.  Rooms  for  help  should  be  somewhat 
separated  from  the  other  rooms  of  the  house, 
and  reached  from  perhaps  the  rear  entrance  and 
hall.  Where  a  number  of  persons  are  employed, 
it  is  well  to  have  a  special  living  room  as  well  as 
bedrooms,  as  is  done  in  English  houses  of  some 
pretension.  Rooms  for  servants  should  not  be 
poorly  arranged  and  poorly  furnished,  as  is  too 
often  the  case.  Common  labor  is  assuming  a 
greater  dignity,  and  every  person  is  entitled  to 
comfort  and  consideration. 

Porches  and  Exterior  Features. — ^A  porch  should 
not  become  a  part  of  a  building  unless  it  has 
a  distincfl  use.  Porches  added  to  a  build- 
ing for  the  sole  purpose  of  improving  the  com- 
position are  a  failure.  If,  after  a  few  years  a 
porch  floor  has  not  yet  had  the  paint  scratched 
from  it,  then  the  porch  may  as  well  be  removed, 

82 


Plate  25 
Kitchen  Solution  No.  4 


83 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

and  something  of  more  importance  put  in  its 
place.  In  some  climates  the  porches  are  almost 
more  important  than  the  rooms,  and  there  may 
be  not  only  sleeping  porches  but  living  and  din- 
ing porches.  The  small  entrance,  stoop  or  hood, 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  porch  proper, 
in  that  it  is  not  a  place  for  chairs  and  other 
furniture,  but  simply  a  protecftion  for  the  door 
itself  made  archite(fturally  beautiful,  to  mark 
the  entrance  and  to  give  the  doorway  the  im- 
portance which  is  its  due  on  account  of  being 
the  source  of  circulation  in  the  house.  All 
porches  should  be  attracftive  and  should  be  de- 
signed as  a  part  of  the  house  rather  than  as  an 
afterthought.  In  high  or  two-story  houses  the 
porch  usually  has  a  cornice  of  its  own,  but  in 
low  or  one-story  houses  it  is  almost  invariably 
better  to  allow  the  main  house  roof  to  cover  the 
porch  rather  than  to  give  it  an  independent 
cornice.  The  floor  of  an  important  porch  should 
be  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide  and  may  be  of  wood, 
tile,  brick  or  concrete. 

Porches,  as  well  as  the  body  of  the  house, 
may  be  made  attracflive  by  means  of  flower 
boxes,  trellises  and  lattices,  the  success  of  these 
things  depending  very  much  upon  the  good 
taste  of  the  designer,  since  an  infinite  number 
of  variations  are  possible.  Among  other  things 
that  tend  to  beautify  a  house  and  which  should 
really  be  a  part  of  it,  although  isolated,  are 
pergolas,  arbors,  and  gates.  These  should  re- 
fledl  the  spirit  of  the  house  design  in  form 
and  color.  At  this  point  the  subjecfl  of  land- 
scape   architedlure    and    gardening    meet    that 

84 


HOUSE  DESIGN 

of  archite(5lure  proper.  (See  Plates  45  and 
46.) 

Basements. — ^The  basement  has  a  number  of 
uses  which  should  not  be  neglecfled,  or  even 
put  off  as  a  last  consideration.  Not  only  is  it 
necessary  to  provide  in  the  basement  special 
rooms  for  the  heater,  fuel,  vegetables,  and  some- 
times other  supplies,  but  it  is  economically  neces- 
sary to  use  this  space  for  a  number  of  things 
which  cannot  be  provided  for  upon  the  main 
floors.  By  proper  lighting,  heating  and  ventila- 
tion, a  part  of  the  basement  may  be  used  as  a 
den,  a  play  room,  a  shop,  a  servants'  sitting  room, 
or  a  billiard  room.  The  construcflion  of  the 
house  should  not  be  such  as  to  destroy  the  val- 
uable space  in  the  basement  which  is  acquired 
with  very  little  expense  to  the  owner  of  the 
building.  Incidentally,  the  attic  space  may  be 
utilized  for  many  purposes,  as  well  as  the  base- 
ment. 

Conclusion. — House  design  is  a  far-reaching 
subjecfl,  but  whether  the  problem  is  a  cottage 
or  a  castle  makes  little  difference  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  pertaining  to  it.  First 
of  all,  the  building  must  be  true  to  the  spirit 
that  prompted  its  eredlion  and  beyond  that  it 
must  be  useful,  pleasing  and  substantial. 


8s 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  the  first  floor  plan  of  a  modern  colonial  cot- 
tage at  the  scale  of  >/8"  =  i'  o." 

(2)  Make  two  sketch  plans,  one  of  a  kitchen  with  which 
you  are  familiar  and  another  of  the  same  kitchen  re- 
modeled to  be  most  convenient  and  sanitary.  Make 
sketches  at  the  scale  of  ^/i"  =  1'  o"  on  two  sheets  of  paper. 
Letter  the  drawing. 

(3)  Sketch  the  first  floor  plan  of  a  model  farmhouse 
showing  especially  the  arrangement  of  the  kitchen  and 
rooms  used  in  conjunc5tion  with  it.  Make  drawing  at  the 
scale  of  V8"=i'  o." 

References 

Robinson. — Archite(5lural  Composition. 
Arnot. — Gothic  Archite(5lure  Applied  to  Modern  Resi- 
dences. 

Osborne. — The  Family  House. 

Saylor. — Bungalows. 

White. — Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them. 

Embury  H. — One  Hundred  Country  Houses. 

Saylor. — Distinctive  Homes  of  Moderate  Cost. 

Note:  For  judging  a  house,  by  a  score  Card  method  see 
Professor  John  R.  Commons'  "  Dwelling  House  Score 
Card." 


m 


CHAPTER  V.     INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND 
ARCHITECTURAL   FURNITURE 

ROOM  Design. — In  the  planning  of  a 
particular  room,  the  proportion  is  im- 
portant. The  same  principles  apply  to 
it  as  apply  to  house  design  in  general. 
The  idea  of  axes  should  be  applied  in  laying  out 
openings  in  the  walls  and  architedlural  furniture. 
Usually,  groups  of  windows,  important  doors, 
fireplaces,  and  other  large  or  important  features, 
should  be  placed  on  an  axis,  which  in  most  cases 
would  be  in  the  centre  of  the  wall  at  the  side  or 
end  of  the  room.  It  is  found  that  in  the  ordinary 
residence  it  is  impossible  and  even  undesirable  to 
make  all  parts  symmetrical,  but  the  main  objecfts 
should  occupy  central  positions.  Living  rooms, 
dining  rooms,  and  other  important  rooms  es- 
pecially should  be  treated  archite(5lurally,  and 
although  a  number  of  rooms  may  open  one  upon 
another,  giving  the  appearance  of  much  space, 
still  each  unit  should  have  a  distindl  geometrical 
plan  of  its  own.  For  instance,  if  the  front 
part  of  a  house  is  to  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which  is  to  be  used  as  a  living  room  and  the 
other  as  a  dining  room,  with  a  large  opening 
between,  it  is  important  to  give  the  living  room 
a  distincft  re(5langular  shape,  while  the  dining 
room  might  be  a  perfed:  square,  rather  than  to 
make  the  living  room  a  recflangular  shape  which 
was  not  positive,  and  to  make  the  dining  room 
only  a  foot  or  two  greater  in  one  dimension  than 
in  the  other.  Rooms  should  not  be  of  an  L-shape, 
but  in  cases  where  an  L-shape  is  unavoidable, 
it  is  well  to  make  the  smaller  part  of  the  L  an 

87 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

alcove  with  a  beam  overhead,  separating  the 
two  parts,  A  means  of  determining  the  shape  of 
a  room  is  by  looking  at  or  imagining  the  plan  of 
the  ceiling,  rather  than  the  plan  of  the  floor, 
since  the  ceiling  plan  is  never  continuous  be- 
tween rooms,  while  the  floor  is.  Ceiling  heights 
are  very  important,  and  should  be  predeter- 
mined according  to  the  use  and  characfter  of  the 
house.  The  minimum  height  is  eight  feet 
and  the  maximum  twelve.  Although  it  is  often 
inconvenient  to  have  steps  leading  from  one 
room  to  another,  such  an  arrangement  of  from 
one  to  five  steps  is  often  very  effecfhive:  the 
ceiling  height  of  a  smaller  room  may  well  be  less 
than  the  ceiling  height  of  a  larger  adjoining 
room.  Oftentimes  looking  from  a  large  living 
room  into  an  average  size  dining  room,  a  few 
steps  elevating  the  floor  of  the  latter,  and  con- 
sequently the  dining  room  suite,  gives  a  very 
pleasing  effedl. 

Doors  and  Windows. — ^The  walls  of  a  room  are 
pierced  with  doors  and  windows.  Doors  may 
be  common  wood  or  glass  panel  hinged  doors, 
double-action  doors,  heavy  sliding  doors,  single 
or  in  pairs,  colonial  glass  doors  in  pairs,  French 
doors  or  windows,  and  doors  of  special  design 
made  of  battens  or  having  plain  veneered  sur- 
faces. Moreover,  doors  may  have  transoms  and 
side  lights  of  many  shapes  and  designs.  Win- 
dows are  usually  double  hung,  which  are  the 
common  sliding  windows  of  two  sash,  or  case- 
ment, which  are  windows  hinged  at  top,  side 
or  bottom,  to  swing  out  or  in.  French  windows 
are  casements  extending  to  the  floor  and  ar- 


Plate  26 

Wall  Treatment  Showing  Colonial  Influence 


89 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ranged  in  pairs.  Occasionally  windows  are 
hung  eccentrically  or  are  set  up  in  a  stationary 
manner.  Beyond  the  sense  of  utility  in  placing 
doors  and  windows,  the  treatment  of  the  wall 
itself  should  be  observed.  The  same  type  of 
window  and  similar  glass  panels  should  be  used 
as  far  as  compatible  with  convenience.  When 
possible,  the  heights  of  all  openings  in  the  wall 
should  be  the  same.  A  convenient  height  to 
use  in  working  out  this  principle  is  seven  feet, 
which  is  a  good  height  for  the  head  jamb  of  the 
door,  and  in  low-ceilinged  rooms  a  good  height 
for  the  head  jambs  of  the  windows  as  well. 
However,  in  rooms  of  more  than  ordinary  ceiling 
height,  it  is  usually  found  necessary  to  make  the 
window  head  more  than  seven  feet  in  height  in 
order  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  window  as  a 
means  of  lighting  and  ventilating  the  room.^  In 
some  cases  the  distance  of  the  head  jamb  above 
the  finished  floor  may  be  eight  and  one-half 
feet,  while  a  door  with  a  transom  over  it  may  be 
the  same  height.  If  all  head  jambs  cannot  be 
made  at  the  same  height,  then  two  heights 
should  be  established,  with  an  appreciable 
difference,  so  that  if  the  picfture  mould  or  other 
mouldings  are  carried  around  the  room,  they 
will  build  into  the  casings  over  these  openings  in  a 
pleasing  way,  sometimes  forming  a  secondary 
frieze  around  the  room,  as  wide  as  the  difference 
between  the  two  heights.  It  is  never  well  to 
pierce  the  walls  of  a  room  with  openings  without 
giving  thought  to  the  line  which  these  openings 

'  For  efficiency  in  ventilation  especially,  it  is  important 
that  the  window  run  up  nearly  to  the  ceiling. 

90 


INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  FURNITURE 

will  make.  When  no  two  openings  are  of  the 
same  height,  architecflural  treatment  is  almost 
impossible. 

Openings  in  a  wall,  as  indicated  on  a  plan, 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  give  balance.  If  a 
fireplace  is  in  the  centre  of  a  wall,  with  a  door- 
way on  one  side  and  a  window  on  the  other,  these 
two  openings  should  be  placed  in  symmetry 
one  with  the  other,  and  although  the  nature  of 
the  openings  is  not  the  same,  the  treatment 
of  them  should  be  similar.  When  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  openings  is  not  possible  or  de- 
sirable, then  they  should  be  made  to  balance  by 
applying  other  architedlural  principles  of  di- 
vision. It  is  usually  not  well  to  place  an  open- 
ing near  the  centre  of  a  wall  without  having 
it  exacftly  in  the  centre,  and  it  is  not  well  to 
crowd  a  door  or  a  window  into  the  angle  or 
corner  of  a  room.  Window  openings  on  the 
outside  wall  of  the  room  may  be  balanced  by 
a  door  opening  on  the  inside  wall;  also  window 
openings  on  the  outside  wall  and  on  the  axis 
of  the  room,  may  be  balanced  by  means  of  a 
large  fixture  opposite,  or  perhaps  only  an  un- 
broken wall  with  a  small  opening  at  either  ex- 
tremity. A  number  of  windows  in  the  same  wall 
should  usually  be  grouped  together  rather  than 
distributed. 

Trim. — ^The  interior  woodwork  of  a  room, 
with  the  exception  of  fixtures,  is  called  trim, 
and  may  be  much  varied  in  design  and  construc- 
tion. The  principal  members  of  interior  wood- 
work, starting  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  are  the 
baseboard,  with  its  shoe  mould,  the  chair  rail, 

91 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  pidlure  mould,  and  the  cornice.  On  each 
side  and  at  the  top  of  a  window  opening,  the 
trim  is  called  an  architrave  or  a  casing,  while  at 
the  bottom  of  the  opening,  the  trim  consists 
of  a  stool  and  an  apron.  Around  a  doorway  the 
trim  is  called  an  architrave  or  casing,  the  same 
as  around  a  window.  In  many  cases  there  would 
be  a  great  amount  of  special  trim  used  in  the 
construdlion  of  special  details.  Wainscotings, 
panels,  beams,  stiles,  and  rails  are  very  common 
members.  Stiles  are  the  vertical  members,  and 
rails  are  the  horizontal  members  that  frame  pan- 
els; thus  a  door  may  consist  of  two  stiles  and 
four  rails,  framing  three  panels,  the  two  lower 
of  which  may  be  of  wood,  while  the  upper  may  be 
of  glass.     (See  Plates  26  and  27.) 

By  using  these  finishing  members  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  openings  in  the  walls  of  a  room, 
archite(5tural  treatment  is  brought  about.  The 
lines  of  a  room,  as  suggested  before,  should  be 
continuous,  so  that  not  only  the  head  trim  of  the 
openings  may  be  made  a  line  by  connecfting  them 
with  a  belt  course,  but  the  lower  line  of  windows, 
formed  by  the  stool  and  apron,  may  be  made 
continuous  by  allowing  these  two  members  to 
run  through  from  window  to  window,  in  which 
case  they  would  become  the  chair  rail.  Thus  all 
windows  may  be  tied  together,  both  at  the  top 
and  at  the  bottom,  but  an  imaginary  line  in- 
stead of  a  real  belt  course  might  answer  as  well 
the  purpose  of  design.  The  wall  space  from  the 
stool  or  inside  window  sill  to  the  floor  may  be 
treated  with  a  wainscoting  of  any  appropriate 
design.    The  lower  part  of  the  wainscoting  would 

92 


Plate  27 
Wall  Treatment  Showing  English  Gothic  Influence 


93 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

be  the  baseboard  of  the  room.  Infinite  variety 
of  room  treatments  is  possible,  so  that  each 
room  should  be  designed  individually  and  care- 
fully drafted  to  insure  a  pleasing  treatment.  (See 
Plates  26,  27,  28,  29.) 

Architectural  Furniture. — ^Architecflural  furni- 
ture includes  all  built-in  furniture  and  cabinet- 
work. Ordinarily  built-in  fixtures  cost  less  than 
portable  fixtures  but  perhaps  should  not  be 
used  so  extensively  in  a  house  as  to  give  the  rooms 
a  fixed  ready-made  appearance.  The  amount  of 
archite(5lural  furniture  to  be  used  in  a  house  de- 
pends more  upon  the  general  characfler  of  the 
house  than  upon  any  other  one  thing.  The 
personal  taste  or  preference  of  the  owner  should 
really  decide  the  question  of  amount. 

The  Living  Room. — Probably  the  most  im- 
portant built-in  fixture  in  the  living  room  is  the 
fireplace  and  consequently  it  should  occupy  the 
most  important  position  in  the  room.  However, 
a  fireplace  should  always  be  out  of  close  proxim- 
ity to  doors  since  doors  not  only  disturb  the 
serenity  of  the  hearth  but  also  cause  uncomfort- 
able drafts.  A  fireplace  in  a  corner  is  not  very 
usable  and  should  not  be  so  placed  except  when 
necessary.  A  corner  fireplace  does  save  wall 
space  and  is  sometimes  convenient  for  small 
rooms  and  chambers.  Fireplaces  may  be  on 
exterior  walls,  but  are  preferable  on  interior 
walls.  If  one  is  placed  on  an  outside  wall,  it 
should  probably  be  on  the  north  in  order  to  save 
other  walls  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air 
through  windows.  Local  conditions  determine 
to  a  great  extent  the  location  of  a  fireplace. 

94 


g: 


z 
? 

1 ° 

0 

< 

1 

z 
< 

1 S 

■ 

in 


o 

o 
> 


O    K 

U 

> 

J 

z 


Plate  28 
Wall  Treatment  Suitable  for  Mission  Style 


9S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

In  order  to  insure  perfecft  draft  in  a  fireplace 
with  neither  a  tendency  to  draw  too  hard  nor  to 
smoke  the  room,  certain  principles  of  construc- 
tion must  be  applied.  The  depth  of  the  opening 
should  be  one-half  the  width.  The  height  of 
the  opening  should  be  about  two  feet  and  six 
inches,  depending  somewhat  upon  the  width. 
The  throat  or  opening  into  the  flue  for  the  escape 
of  smoke  should  be  one-tenth  or  one-twelfth  the 
area  of  the  front  opening  of  the  fireplace.  The 
higher  the  chimney  the  smaller  the  size  of  the 
flue  may  be.  House  flues  are  9''  x  9'',  9''  x  12", 
\z"  X  12"  and  occasionally  \^"  x  \G' .  Usually 
the  fireplace  flue  should  be  9"  x  \z" .  A  draft 
of  air  sweeping  down  the  chimney  must  be 
diverted  from  its  course  into  the  room  by  means 
of  a  curved  floor  in  the  smoke  chamber  above 
the  throat.  Also  a  draft  of  air  sweeping  across  the 
room  floor  into  a  fireplace  must  be  conducfted 
through  the  throat  of  the  chimney  rather  than 
allowed  to  rebound  smoke  laden  into  the  room. 
A  fireplace  is  always  lined  with  fireproof  mate- 
rials. In  front  of  the  fireplace  a  hearth  must 
be  provided  and  well  supported,  and  an  ash 
pit  construdled  below  whenever  not  impos- 
sible. 

To  get  the  greatest  heat  from  a  fireplace  the 
ends  should  be  set  diagonally,  thereby  making  the 
back  narrower  than  the  front.  This  sometimes 
occasions  inconvenience  in  laying  long  sticks  of 
wood  on  the  floor  or  the  fire-dogs.  Diagonal  ends 
to  the  fireplace  refledl  heat  into  the  room  as  does 
the  back.  The  back  should  be  perpendicular  for 
about  one  third  of  its  height  in  order  to  bring 

96 


>  N 

I— I 

<  \ 


z 

W 


Plate  29 
Wall  Treatment  of  Art  Nouveau  Design 


97 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

about  perfedt  combustion  and  thereby  utilize  all 
of  the  fuel.     (See  Plate  30.) 

The  width  of  the  opening  in  a  fireplace  and  the 
design  of  the  whole  depends  upon  the  characfter 
of  the  room  and  the  house.  However,  the  fuel 
to  be  used  regulates  to  some  extent  the  size  of 
the  opening.  The  purpose  for  which  the  mantel- 
piece is  to  be  used  suggests  a  size  and  form  for  it. 
The  difference  between  a  small  fireplace  in  a 
Colonial  house  where  coal  is  used  for  fuel  and  a 
large  fireplace  in  a  rustic  house  where  cord  wood 
is  burned  is  decidedly  marked.  For  cord  wood 
an  opening  of  four  and  one-half  feet  is  required. 

Bookcases  are  often  built  in  nearness  to  the 
fireplace  in  order  to  have  a  cosy  corner.  Built-in 
seats  are  used  in  a  great  number  of  ways,  and 
may  be  window  seats  or  fireplace  seats.  When 
the  fireplace,  bookcases  and  seats  are  combined, 
usually  an  ingle  nook  results,  which  is  simply  a 
small  alcove  separated  from  the  living  room  by 
means  of  a  beam  overhead.  An  ingle  nook  should 
have  a  floor, — really  the  hearth  of  the  fireplace, — 
made  of  brick  or  tile.  The  ordinary  window 
seat  in  a  house  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water  is 
placed  over  a  radiator,  made  especially  for  the 
purpose.  In  this  case  the  wood  seat  is  lined  with 
tin  and  asbestos  to  protecft  it  and  also  to  throw 
the  heat  into  the  room,  the  tin  having  a  curved 
back,  thus  acting  as  a  heat  reflector.  Window 
seats  may  also  be  bookcases,  magazine  cases, 
wood  lifts  or  storage  boxes.  Wainscotings  and 
beamed  ceilings  are  used  extensively  in  the 
treatment  of  living  rooms,  and  should  conform 
with    the    architecflural    furniture.      Originally, 

98 


INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  FURNITURE 
beams  in  a  ceiling  were  used  to  support  the  floor 
above,  but  now  they  are  of  box  construcflion, 
and  are  not  of  structural  value.     Wainscotings 
are  applied  to  the  plaster  similarly  to  beams,  are 
of  thin  material,  and  are  usually  from  one  foot  to 
seven  feet  high.    They  are  useful  as  a  protecftion 
to  the  wall.    Billiard  tables  and  piano  cases  may 
be  made  to  order  to  match  the  other  woodwork 
of  the  room,   and   are  not  usually  much  more 
costly  than  when  purchased  outright  from  stock. 
Special  cabinets  for  collecflions  should  not  be  built 
in  the  living  room,  but  maybe  in  a  hall  or  library 
or  other  room  used  less  generally.     (See  Plate  31.) 
Bedrooms. — In  bedrooms,  but  more  often  in 
dressing    rooms,    a    quantity    of    architecflural 
furniture  may  be  used.     The  bed  itself  may  be 
built  in,  but  usually  the  built-in  bed  is  a  patent 
contrivance  and  is  installed  by  the  manufacfturer. 
A  piece  of  furniture  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
bedroom  closet  is  the  wardrobe,  a  cabinet  for 
the  keeping  of  clothes.    Such  a  cabinet  should  be 
about  eighteen  inches  in  depth,  and  perhaps  four 
or  five  feet  wide,  inside,  and  should  have  a  pair 
or  more  of  doors  with  mirror  linings.    The  doors 
may  be  as  much  as  seven  feet  in  height,  if  they 
extend  to  the  floor;  however,  the  better  way  is 
to  have  the  doors  come  to  within  eighteen  inches 
of  the  floor,  with  drawers  beneath.    Upon  open- 
ing these  doors,  there  should  be  in  immediate 
reach  a  low  shelf  or  bench  for  the  keeping  of 
shoes,  and  a  high  shelf  for  the  keeping  of  band 
boxes  and  like  articles.     The  distance  between 
the  two  shelves  should  be  ample  for  the  hanging 
of  suits  or  gowns  on  hangers  upon  an  iron  pole 

99 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

underneath  the  hat  shelf.  The  inside  of  such 
a  wardrobe  may  well  be  enameled,  so  that  it  will 
not  readily  colledt  dust.  Doors  should  be  snug, 
and  of  light  panel  construdlion, — possibly  one 
and  one-eighth  inches  thick.  The  design  of  a 
built-in  wardrobe  for  the  use  of  a  man  may  vary  1 
from  that  for  the  use  of  a  woman  in  the  dis- 
tance between  the  shoe  shelf  and  the  hat  shelf, 
since  a  dress  or  gown  occupies  more  space  than  a 
man's  suit.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  put  an 
additional  shelf  overhead.  The  drawers  at  the 
base  of  the  wardrobe  may  be  used  in  a  number 
of  ways.  It  is  quite  often  desirable  to  have  a 
dressing  table  with  a  mirror  on  one  side  of  the 
dressing  room  and  a  wardrobe  with  mirror  doors 
on  the  opposite  side.  Thereby  reflecftions  of 
great  convenience  may  be  arranged.  Mirrors 
may  be  placed  either  on  the  outside  or  inside  of 
wardrobe  doors.  When  three  doors  are  used, 
and  mirrors  placed  on  the  outside,  the  two  end 
doors  are  made  to  hinge  from  the  inside  edges, 
forming  a  mirrored  niche  much  like  the  contriv- 
ance used  by  tailors.  The  little  compartments 
of  a  dressing  table  should  be  arranged  according 
to  the  taste  and  acftual  use  of  the  one  who  is  to 
occupy  the  apartment. 

Chiffoniers  and  dressers  may  be  built  against 
or  into  the  walls  of  bedrooms  or  dressing  rooms, 
and  may  be  of  pra(5lically  any  design.  A  chif- 
fonier should  not  be  made  clumsy  in  proportion, 
a  common  fault  being  that  the  depth  of  the 
fixture  is  too  great.  Linen  and  towel  closets 
should  be  designed  to  hold  conveniently  the 
linen  articles  without  a  great  heaping  up  of  the 


•amJL  ANaavfaw 


Plate  30 
Properly  Constructed  Fireplace — See  Plate  12 


DOr^ESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

materials.  The  shelves  should  not  be  very  far 
apart, — perhaps  ten  inches, — and  some  of  the 
shelves  should  be  made  quite  wide  to  accommo- 
date bed  clothing  and  blankets.  Medicine  cases 
may  be  built  pracflically  inside  of  the  partition, 
projedling  only  a  few  inches.  The  shelves  do 
not  need  to  be  more  than  four  or  six  inches  wide, 
and  should  be,  if  possible,  of  plate  glass  and  ad- 
justable, so  that  they  may  readily  be  removed 
and  cleaned.  The  door  of  a  medicine  case  may 
be  sixteen  inches  wide,  and  twenty-four  inches 
high,  and  should  have  a  mirror  either  on  the 
outside  or  inside. 

A  very  special  fixture  for  a  bedroom  is  a  com- 
bination lavatory,  towel  closet  and  toilet  case 
built  in  the  wall  and  shut  oif  from  the  room 
by  means  of  a  door,  with  a  mirror  panel  on  the 
inside.  The  space  used  may  be  twenty-four 
inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  deep,  in  which 
is  incorporated  the  equipment  named.  All  parts 
must  be  made  especially  sanitary,  and  ventilation 
of  the  little  closet  is  advisable.    (See  Plate  32.) 

Dining  Rooms. —  The  important  feature  of 
the  dining  room  is  the  buffet  or  sideboard.  The 
design  may  vary  to  a  great  extent,  but  the  more 
pleasing  designs  consist  of  a  lower  projecfting 
part  containing  drawers  and  lockers,  and  an 
upper  recessed  part  which  is  open.  However, 
in  the  upper  part,  small  glass  doors  may  be 
placed  at  the  sides,  while  the  central  portion  may 
have  mirror  back  and  ends.  It  is  often  very 
desirable  to  line  all  china  cabinets  with  mirrors, 
and  to  use  plate  glass  shelves  supported  by 
nickel   brackets.     The   doors   of  such   cabinets 


INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  FURNITURE 

should  be  of  plate  or  of  leaded  glass,  and  not  of 
common  glass  panels.  In  designing  a  buffet, 
the  exact  use  of  the  fixture  should  be  considered, 
and  space  allowed  for  certain  articles  of  linen, 
silver,  glass  and  china.  It  is  not  well  to  display 
too  much  of  such  ware.  Other  cabinets  than  the 
buffet  or  sideboard  may  be  designed  into  the 
room,  but  should  probably  not  projecft  beyond 
the  face  of  the  wall.  Thus  the  upper  part  of  a 
pass  cupboard  may  become  a  china  cupboard. 
Sometimes  a  square  dining  room  may  be  archi- 
te(5turally  treated  by  placing  in  each  corner  of 
it  a  triangular  china  cupboard  with  plate  glass 
doors  and  shelves,  and  mirror  backs.  China 
cupboards  may  be  illuminated  by  concealing 
an  ele(5lric  light  in  the  upper  part,  which  is  not 
visible  but  which  lightens  in  a  modest  way  the 
interior  of  the  cabinet.  A  sideboard  should 
never  be  placed  on  an  outside  wall  with  windows 
at  the  sides  or  above,  since  the  light  from  the 
outside  is  disturbing  when  the  gaze  is  fixed  upon 
the  sideboard  itself.  The  size  of  buffets  and 
sideboards  varies  in  width  from  four  feet  to  nine, 
and  in  height  from  two  to  four  feet  from  the  floor 
to  the  counter. 

Dining  room  fixtures  made  of  wood  through- 
out, including  linings  and  shelves,  should  be 
white  or  a  neutral  color  on  the  inside,  rather 
than  the  color  of  the  wood  of  the  room  if  finished 
naturally.  The  edges  of  wood  shelves  should 
be  beveled  quite  thin  to  avoid  a  look  of  heaviness. 
Quite  often  the  trim  or  casing  of  the  fixture 
may  be  exacftly  the  same  as  the  trim  of  doors 
and  other  openings,  and  in  all  cases  should  match 

103 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Other  woodwork.  In  some  instances,  nooks  or 
alcoves  have  been  made  in  the  walls  of  dining 
rooms  to  exacflly  accommodate  a  ready-made 
fixture  of  family  or  historic  interest.  A  niche 
of  this  type  may  be  semi-circular,  semi-odlagonal 
or  other  shape. 

Of  the  other  built-in  features  of  a  dining  room, 
perhaps  the  service  table  and  bay  window  are 
most  often  used.  The  service  table  should  be 
by  the  pantry  door,  and  may  be  quite  small  and 
built  part  way  in  the  wall  itself.  Dining  rooms 
on  the  south  side  of  the  house  may  very  often 
have  a  special  window  used  as  a  plant  conserva- 
tory, which  would  necessarily  require  a  seat  or 
wide  stool.  Paneled  walls  and  occasionally  plate 
rails  are  desirable  features.     (See  Plate  33.) 

Kitchens. — ^As  the  kitchen  itself  is  a  work 
room,  the  architecflural  furniture  of  the  kitchen 
is  designed  to  be  used  every  day.  The  small 
things,  then,  become  important. 

All  counters  and  tables  in  a  kitchen  should 
be  of  the  same  height  so  that  in  placing  a  dish  or 
a  utensil  on  one  table  or  on  another  the  same 
movement  is  anticipated  and  performed.  By 
this  simple  arrangement,  the  chance  of  accident 
and  breakage  of  dishes  is  minimized.  In  order 
that  the  hands  or  elbows  of  the  worker,  whether 
sitting  or  standing,  may  be  at  the  same  relative 
height  to  the  counter,  a  stool  of  the  proper  size 
should  be  a  part  of  the  kitchen  equipment.  Ad- 
justable legs  on  work  tables  have  been  found 
convenient.  Counters  and  tables,  when  designed 
for  the  especial  use  of  one  person,  should  be 
built  to  accommodate  that  one.     The  conven- 

104 


Plate  31 
Combination  of  Features — See  Plate  12 


los 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ient  height  for  such  fixtures  Is  from  thirty  to 
thirty-six  inches,  and  it  is  well  to  use  a  dimension 
approaching  the  latter  figure.  The  tops  of  all 
tables  and  counters  should  be  of  such  material 
as  will  not  readily  cause  breakage.  Of  the  woods, 
white  pine,  red  cedar,  and  perhaps  white  maple 
are  the  best.  Oak  is  too  subjedl  to  warpage. 
Tile  and  slate  are  serviceable  materials  for 
counters  but  are  so  hard  as  to  cause  breakage 
of  glassware,  china  and  crockery.  Perhaps  the 
best  material  to  use  for  kitchen  counters  is  a 
patent  material  consisting  of  a  number  of  sub- 
stances which  give  not  only  a  firm,  waterproof 
surface,  but  also  give  elasticity.  There  are  a 
number  of  such  materials  in  the  market  which 
are  put  in  place  similarly  to  asphalt  and  allowed 
to  become  hard,  thereby  giving  a  surface  without 
joints. 

Cupboards  should  be  designed  to  accommo- 
date certain  articles.  Pantry  cupboards  are  used 
for  staple  supplies,  and  should  be  roomy.  China 
cupboards  may  well  have  adjustable  shelves,  so 
that  they  may  be  arranged  to  suit  the  china  on 
hand.  A  good  width  for  the  shelves  of  china 
cupboards  is  eleven  inches.  Cupboards  used 
in  connedlion  with  the  main  work  counter,  and 
sometimes  called  spice  cupboards,  should  be 
narrow,  with  shelves  perhaps  from  four  to  eight 
inches  wide,  but  the  distance  between  shelves 
should  be  great  enough  to  allow  space  for  bottles 
and  tall  cans.  One  cupboard  in  a  kitchen  should 
be  a  dry  cupboard,  which  may  be  built  around 
the  hot  water  tank  or  against  the  chimney. 
Here,  sugar  and  such  articles  of  food  may  be 

io6 


Plate  32 
Built-in  Fixtures  for  the  Bedroom — See  Plate  13 


107 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

kept  with  small  chance  of  damage  to  them  from 
moisture.  A  special  cupboard  should  be  pro- 
vided for  large  utensils  used  in  cooking,  such  as 
iron  kettles,  broilers  and  the  like,  which  have  a 
limited  sphere  of  use  in  a  kitchen.  They  should 
be  carried  only  from  sink  to  range  and  range  to 
sink  and  stored  in  immediate  proximity  to  the 
sink.  Ordinarily  a  locker  under  the  sink  counter 
with  either  a  shelf  or  pot  hooks  is  provided  for 
the  storage  of  these  heavy  utensils,  but  a  far 
better  arrangement  is  to  have  the  locker  above 
the  sink  counter  to  the  right  of  the  sink,  the  drain 
board  being  on  the  left.  This  locker  should 
really  be  within  the  kitchen  wall  rather  than 
projecfling  over  the  counter  to  give  the  greatest 
ease  in  handling  the  heavy  articles.  If  other 
cupboards  are  not  behind  the  face  of  the  plaster 
they  should  extend  to  the  ceiling  to  eliminate 
the  dusty  top  shelf  so  common.  The  extra 
space  thus  provided  although  high  above  the 
floor  is  useful  for  storage.  It  may  be  mentioned 
here  that  shelves  over  six  feet  high  are  not  usable 
in  everyday  kitchen  work. 

The  doors  of  cupboards  may  be  made  to  slide 
or  to  hinge,  each  kind  having  advantages.  Slid- 
ing doors,  unless  very  well  construcfted,  are  hard 
to  keep  clean  and  if  a  track  is  provided  at  the 
bottom  of  the  door  instead  of  at  the  top  they  are 
impossible  to  keep  clean.  The  main  objedlion 
to  hinged  doors  is  the  facft  that  they  swing  out 
and  interfere  with  the  worker.  To  minimize 
this  difficulty,  hinged  doors  should  never  be 
made  more  than  sixteen  inches  wide.  Cupboard 
doors  may  be  of  wood  panel  or  glass  panel  con- 

io8 


'-^ooa  *o  •»MiT    jnivjio 


J 

< 

p 

o 
o 

pi 

o 

2 


ODD 


P 


Plate  33 
Built-in  Fixtures  for  the  Dining  Room — See  Plate  I2 


109 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

stru<ftion.  Probably  the  glass  panel  doors  are 
more  convenient  because  the  contents  of  the 
cupboard  may  readily  be  seen.  However,  wood 
panel  doors  have  a  neater  appearance  on  account 
of  the  unavoidable  disorder  or  at  least  irregular 
appearance  of  the  contents  of  some  cupboards. 
Doors  in  cupboards  built  inside  of  the  kitchen 
wall  may  often  be  arranged  to  slide  up  into  the 
wall  itself,  which  is  a  very  nice  arrangement, 
and  sanitary  as  well.  Doors  should  never  sweep 
over  a  counter  or  scrape  on  the  ledge  at  the  bot- 
tom. In  the  latter  case  they  may  be  raised  a 
fradlion  of  an  inch  on  a  small  rail. 

The  width  of  counters  does  not  vary  to  a  great 
extent,  it  having  been  found  that  twenty-two 
inches  is  the  maximum  convenient  reach.  The 
higher  the  counter,  the  less  wide  it  may  be. 
Counters  in  pass  cupboards  or  service  cupboards, 
however,  may  be  wider,  since  they  are  reached 
from  both  sides,  but  even  they  should  not  be 
more  than  twenty-eight  inches  wide,  mostly  on 
account  of  the  width  of  the  space  above,  which 
could  be  used  only  for  two  sets  of  shelving,  with 
perhaps  doors  on  both  sides.  The  proper  height 
of  detached  cupboards  above  counters,  allowing 
a  working  space  between,  is  eighteen  inches. 
Drawers  should  be  rather  shallow. 

In  built-in  kitchen  equipment,  the  work  table 
or  work  counter  should  be  provided  with  bread 
boards  and  bins.  Bread  boards  should  be  con- 
strudled  to  withstand  warpage,  to  maintain  a 
good  wearing  surface,  and  to  be  easily  cleaned. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  of  constru(fting  such  a  board 
is  to  make  it  much  as  a  high-class  drawing  board, 


—" 

■  --  ■■ 1 

; 

i  :  i  ;«;   : 

1 

1 

-! 

— 

— i        -  ■■• r » 

- 

— • 

; 

:    1    ;•"    1 

; 

1  i 

1 

1 

d 
1- 
t 
3 
0 
0 

...   ,  ...     ..  „  . 

o 
o 

z 

i 

•1 
1 

Q 

_ — ■■ -1 

n 

1 

; 

1  I   !  <    i" 

1 

•1  1 

1 

-1 

.     1 ! \ J| 

_ 

' 

N— 

— 

-_u 



uJ 
H 
< 

P 

z: 
> 


Plate  34 
Cooling  Closets — See  Plate  12 


III 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

consisting  of  matched  white  pine  strips  held 
together  at  the  ends  with  oak  bindings.  A  bread 
board  may  be  eighteen  inches  wide,  and  twenty- 
four  inches  long,  unless  it  is  to  be  used  for  some 
special  purpose.  In  speaking  of  bread  boards 
it  is  often  well  to  provide  in  a  kitchen  a  marble 
slab  which  may  be  conveniently  accessible  for 
certain  uses.  Bread  boards  slip  into  a  pocket 
below  the  counter,  but  this  pocket  should  not 
be  ceiled  on  the  floor  of  it  at  the  back,  because 
invariably  it  will  colle(5l  dust  and  crumbs  which 
cannot  be  reached.  By  leaving  a  small  opening 
in  the  floor  at  the  back,  the  dust  may  be  brushed 
into  the  open  space  below,  and  from  there  re- 
moved. For  flour  and  sugar  bins,  the  hopper 
bin,  properly  construdled,  is  the  best.  At  the 
base  of  the  counter  the  baseboard  should  be 
set  in  from  the  edge  of  the  shelf  above  a  distance 
of  about  ten  inches  to  allow  ample  standing  room, 
and  even  sitting  room,  since  it  is  impossible  to 
work  at  a  counter  when  the  toes  strike  the  base, 
causing  the  body  to  pitch  forward.  Near  this 
base  the  bins  are  pivoted,  allowing  them  to  tilt 
forward  a  reasonable  distance,  and  catch,  but  in 
all  cases  the  bin  should  be  so  construcfted  that 
no  matter  whether  it  is  full  or  empty,  perfecft 
balance  will  be  maintained.  In  many  cases  a 
bin  holding  one  hundred  pounds  or  more  of  sugar 
is  almost  impossible  to  open  when  recently 
filled.  All  bins  should  be  lined  with  a  removable 
zinc  or  tin  lining,  which  may  have  a  small  lid 
of  its  own.  Thus  the  entire  bin  may  be  lifted 
from  its  pivots  at  the  base  and  set  into  the  room, 
and  the  niche  which  it  occupies  readily  cleaned. 


^//^///y^K;^ 


< 
h 


^^///////y///////y/^^^ 


Plate  35 
Special  Kitchen  Counter — See  Plate  12 


113 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Here  would  have  fallen  the  dust  from  the  pocket 
of  the  bread  board  above.  While  the  bin  is  in 
the  room,  the  lining  may  be  removed  and  all 
parts  thoroughly  scoured.  This  bin  is  perfecftly 
sanitary  and  vermin  proof  if  accurately  con- 
strudled.     (See  Plate  35.) 

The  plumbing  work  conne(5led  with  sinks 
should  be  exposed.  The  ordinary  sink  is  of 
enameled  iron,  and  if  of  good  quality  is  satis- 
fa(5lory.  However,  a  sink  should  be  set  up  in 
such  a  way  that  water  cannot  possibly  lodge 
in  crevices  and  cause  an  unclean  condition. 
Usually  a  wood  strip  in  front  of  the  sink  may 
carry  across  the  line  of  the  counter,  but  at  the 
back  an  enameled  flange  should  protect  the 
woodwork  and  should  form  a  base  for  the 
faucets.  No  woodwork  whatsoever  should  be  in 
dire<ft  conta(5l  with  the  constantly  wet  parts  of 
the  sink.  Drain  boards  are  best  construdled 
of  white  pine  and  should  be  cut  with  a  wide, 
flat  wash  in  the  surface  of  the  level  counter,  to 
run  the  water  to  the  sink,  rather  than  with  little 
grooves,  which  are  apt  to  be  unsanitary.  The 
angles  of  this  sloping  cut-out  surface  should 
be  rounded  in  order  that  no  difficulty  would  be 
encountered  in  scouring  the  board.  Drain 
boards  belong  at  the  left  of  sinks,  if  only  one  is 
used.  However,  drain  boards  on  both  sides  are 
preferable,  except  in  the  case  of  small  dish  wash- 
ing sinks  in  pass  pantrys. 

A  very  useful  piece  of  equipment  in  a  kitchen 
is  a  hood  over  the  range.  The  .purpose  of  this 
hood  is  to  carry  ofi^  all  steam  and  gases  gener- 
ated at  the  time  of  cooking.    This  hood  should 

114 


INTERIOR  DESIGN  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  FURNITURE 

be  connecfted  with  a  small  special  flue  in  the 
kitchen  chimney,  which,  on  account  of  the  heat 
of  the  main  flue,  has  a  tendency  to  draw  off  all 
vapors  and  odors.  This  hood  may  be  construcfted 
of  good  sheet  iron,  and  consequently  may  be 
cleaned  and  treated  in  a  way  similar  to  that  of 
the  range  itself.  Kitchens  may  be  provided 
with  a  wood  lift,  and  other  appliances  suggested 
by  local  conditions. 

A  cabinet  for  a  hinged  ironing  board  is  a  great 
convenience,  if  properly  located.  In  moderate 
climates  a  cool  or  ventilated  cupboard  takes 
the  place  of  the  refrigerator.  This  is  made  by 
constru(fting  an  air  intake  at  the  bottom  and  an 
outlet  at  the  top  of  a  cupboard,  and  putting  in 
shelves  of  heavy  woven  wire,  which  allow  cir- 
culation of  air.  The  doors  of  cool  cupboards 
should  be  very  close  fitting.  If  possible,  it  is 
well  to  have  three  small  ventilated  cupboards; 
one  for  butter,  milk  and  meat,  one  for  vege- 
tables, and  one  for  cooked  foods.     (See  Plate  34.) 

Still  another  kitchen  convenience  is  a  small 
bookcase  for  cook  books.  It  may  include  a  desk 
for  keeping  accounts,  a  cash  drawer,  a  telephone 
counter  and  a  clock  shelf,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
calendar. 


"S 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Copy  a  colonial  fireplace  at  large  scale  showing 
mouldings  very  precisely. 

(2)  Design  a  fireplace  for  a  cottage  or  a  bungalow  at 
the  scale  of  >^"  to  i'  o." 

(3)  Draw  an  interior  view  of  a  double  hung  window 
showing  architrave,  stool,  apron,  window  stops,  sash 
and  glass.  Letter  the  name  of  each  part  on  the  drawing 
including  the  stiles,  rails,  meeting-rail  and  also  the  mun- 
tins  if  used.    Do  not  show  hardware. 

(4)  Draw  an  exterior  view  of  the  same  window. 

References 

Bevier. — ^The  House. 
Clark. — The  Care  of  a  House. 

White. — Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them. 
Wells. — Modern    Cabinet    Work,    Furniture    and    Fit- 
ments. 

Saylor. — Distinctive  Homes  of  Moderate  Cost. 


116 


CHAPTER   VI.   CHARACTER   AND 
MOULDINGS 

ARCHITECTURAL  Character.— Ch  a  r- 
adler  is  given  to  a  building  or  to 
an  article  of  furniture  by  means  of 
mass,  line  and  mouldings.  Mass  and 
line  are  of  such  importance  as  to  be  the  pre- 
dominating elements  in  design,  but  mouldings 
really  give  to  the  stru<fture  its  individual  char- 
a(5ter.  Mouldings  are  difficult  of  definition,  but 
may  be  considered  to  be  continuous  bands  of 
ornament  having  in  contour  a  certain  shape 
made  by  a  combination  of  straight  and  curved 
lines.  A  moulding  in  the  abstradl  sense  is  not 
construdled  of  a  material  but  stands  for  a  con- 
tinuous ornamental  surface.  In  acflual  con- 
struction this  surface  may  be  cut  in  the  rough 
stone  face  of  a  building,  or.  If  of  wood,  may  be 
nailed  in  place  as  a  ready-made  pi(5lure  mould. 
The  funcflion  of  a  moulding  is  primarily  to  orna- 
ment; however,  mouldings  serve  various  use- 
ful purposes.  A  moulding  is  judged  largely  by 
the  shades  and  shadows  that  it  casts.  For  in- 
stance, a  sharp  overhanging  moulding  with  a 
strong  light  above  it  produces  a  deep  shadow 
or  strong  band  of  shade,  while  a  flat  band  with 
strong  light  above  it,  produces  a  strong  band 
of  light  surface  or  high  light  in  contrast  to  the 
dark  shade.  The  study  of  mouldings  is  highly 
interesting  and  among  experts  the  closest  dis- 
crimination is  pracfliced. 

Classical  Mouldings. — ^The  classical  mouldings, 
that  is,  the  mouldings  originated  and  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  their  early  architec- 

117 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ture,  are  of  eight  kinds  with  variations.  They 
are  called:  the  band,  or  fillet;  the  bead,  or  as- 
tragal; the  torus,  or  tore;  the  mouth,  or  scotia; 
the  quarter  round,  or  echinus;  the  cove,  or 
cavetto;  the  cyma-re(fta ;  and  the  cyma-reversa. 
These  units  are  used  to  form  mouldings  in  gen- 
eral, or  belt  courses,  cornices,  caps  and  bases. 
Each  one  is  indicated  by  a  small,  straight  line  or 
curved  line  representing  the  cross  se<flion  of 
the  moulding.  The  parts  are  combined  accord- 
ing to  certain  principles,  and  according  to  good 
taste.  The  use  of  the  fillet,  of  the  astragal,  and 
of  the  torus  is  to  bind  together  other  mouldings. 
Some  mouldings,  as  the  echinus  and  cyma- 
reversa,  are  strong  at  the  upper  part  of  the  curve, 
and  are  consequently  adapted  to  support  parts 
above  them.  Other  mouldings,  as  the  cyma- 
recfta  and  the  cavetto,  are  weak  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  curve,  so  are  not  used  to  support 
projecfting  parts,  but  to  protecft  the  parts  below 
them  and  thus  become  crown  mouldings.  The 
difference  between  the  astragal  and  the  torus 
is  in  size  only,  the  astragal  always  being  very 
small  and  the  torus  very  large.  The  size  and 
even  the  proportion  of  all  of  these  mouldings 
do  not  by  any  means  remain  constant.  There 
is  of  necessity  a  dispute  in  regard  to  the  exacft 
number  of  mouldings,  which,  however,  is  of  small 
import  in  the  study  of  them.     (See  Plate  36.) 

Orders  of  Architecture. — From  Roman  classic 
architecfture  there  have  been  evolved  five  dis- 
tindl  types  of  columns,  with  their  entablatures 
and  pedestals.  Each  has  a  proportion  and  a 
combination    of    mouldings    peculiar    to    itself. 

118 


Plate  36 
Classical  Mouldings  and  Orders  of  Architecture 


119 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

These  five  styles  are  called  the  five  orders  of 
archite(5lure,  which  designation  is  very  often 
not  comprehended.  An  order  comprises  a  col- 
umn with  its  base,  shaft  and  capital,  an  en- 
tablature with  its  architrave,  frieze  and  cor- 
nice and  may  or  may  not  have  a  pedestal  with 
its  base,  die  and  cap.  Usually  the  entablature 
of  an  order  is  approximately  one-fourth  the 
height  of  the  column  and  the  pedestal  is  one- 
third  the  height  of  the  column.  A  column  has 
entasis,  that  is,  the  neck  of  the  column  is  smaller 
than  the  base  and  the  line  of  the  column  shaft 
is  a  convex  curve  starting  at  one-third  the 
height  of  the  column.  The  Roman  orders  of 
architecflure  were  investigated  and  set  down  by 
a  number  of  famous  architedls,  chief  of  whom  is 
Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola,  an  Italian,  whose 
work  was  published  in  Rome  in  1563.  The 
book  "Vignola"  treats  of  the  established  pro- 
portion and  characfler  of  the  five  orders  of  ar- 
chitecflure:  the  Tuscan;  the  Doric;  the  Ionic; 
the  Corinthian;  and  the  Composite.  However, 
Vignola  treats  also  of  other  forms  and  combina- 
tions of  forms  employing  the  orders. 

The  Tuscan  Order. — ^This  order  was  origi- 
nated by  the  Etruscans  who  inhabited  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Italy  as  early  as  750  B.  C.  Possibly 
this  race  was  of  Greek  origin  and  developed  the 
order  from  an  early  Greek  type.  The  Tuscan 
order  is  the  most  massive  and  simple  of  all. 
Assuming  the  diameter  of  the  column  as  a 
unit  of  measurement,  the  column  is  seven  di- 
ameters high,  and  the  entablature  is  one  and 
three-quarters    diameters    high.      The   pedestal 


CHARACTER  AND  MOULDINGS 

when  used  is  one-third  the  height  of  the  col- 
umn. 

The  Doric  Order. — ^The  Doric  order  used  by 
the  Romans  was  developed  diredtly  from  the 
Doric  order  used  by  the  Dorians  who  occupied 
Greece  proper.  As  used  by  the  Grecians,  the 
column  was  only  from  four  to  six  diameters  high 
and  the  entablature  was  two  diameters  high. 
Also  the  column  was  set  upon  the  stylobate, 
a  platform  three  steps  high,  and  did  not  have  a 
base  of  its  own.  The  channels  in  the  column 
reached  to  the  floor  of  the  stylobate.  The  best 
example  of  the  Greek  Doric  order  is  found  in 
the  Parthenon,  a  temple  of  Athens  dedicated  to 
Athena  Parthenos,  designed  by  I(5tinus  and  Cal- 
licrates,  and  ere(5led  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  438 
B.  C.  The  Romans  gave  to  the  column  a  base, 
and  made  the  column  eight  diameters  high  and 
the  entablature  two  diameters  high.  They  also 
modified  the  minor  proportions  and  changed 
the  mouldings  to  quite  an  extent.  The  main 
features  of  the  Doric  order  are  the  triglyphs 
and  mutules  in  the  entablature.  However,  there 
are  two  types  of  this  order  one  of  which  has 
dentils  instead  of  mutules.  The  triglyphs  are 
commonly  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  ends 
of  beams  and  the  mutules  from  the  ends  of 
rafters  used  at  a  remote  time  when  the  order 
was  construdled  of  wood.  Since  all  columns 
have  entasis  it  is  possible  that  originally  tree 
trunks  were  used  for  posts  and  columns  with 
a  wood  superstrudture,  and  that  the  order 
was  later  made  of  stone,  retaining  its  first 
form. 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Ionic  Order. — Like  the  Doric,  the  Ionic 
order  originated  in  Greece.  There  the  lonians, 
who  occupied  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
were  greatly  influenced  by  the  Assyrians  and  Per- 
sians, so  that  the  characfteristic  feature  of  the 
Ionic  order,  the  scrolls  which  pra<ftically  form 
the  capital  of  the  column,  is  derived  from  As- 
syria. Usually  the  four  faces  of  the  capital  were 
made  alike,  having  double  scrolls  on  each  corner, 
but  there  are  many  variations  in  details.  Above 
the  scroll  was  the  crowning  member  of  the 
capital,  and  below  the  scroll  was  the  echinus  and 
necking.  The  proportions  of  the  Greek  order 
varied,  but  the  entablature  was  about  two  diam- 
eters high  as  in  the  Doric  order.  The  Roman 
Ionic  order,  as  established  by  Vignola  from  many 
examples,  has  a  column  cap  in  which  the  abacus 
and  fillet  extend  on  two  sides  of  the  column  and 
are  rolled,  so  to  speak,  into  scrolls  which  enclose 
the  echinus  below.  Above  the  scroll  is  a  cyma 
reversa  and  fillet.  The  necking  below  the  echinus 
is  not  present,  the  column  extending  on  down- 
ward. The  Ionic  column  is  nine  diameters  high 
and  the  entablature  is  two  and  one-quarter 
diameters  high. 

The  Corinthian  Order. — ^The  Romans  de- 
vised an  order  called  the  Corinthian,  which  was 
very  elaborate  and  delicate  in  proportion  and 
detail, — even  more  so  than  the  Ionic.  The 
cornice  was  supported  by  brackets  called  modil- 
lions,  and  the  bed  mould  of  the  cornice  was  en- 
riched with  dentils.  The  capital  of  the  column 
was  bell-shaped  and  very  ornamental,  having  for 
its  motif  the  acanthus  leaf.     The  modillions,  as 


CHARACTER  AND  MOULDINGS 
well,  were  decorated  with  the  acanthus.  This 
order  was  the  favorite  of  the  Romans,  being 
used  in  the  majority  of  their  buildings.  The 
column  is  ten  diameters  high  and  the  entabla- 
ture is  two  and  one-half  diameters  high. 

The  Composite  Order. — Still  another  order 
was  used  by  the  Romans,  called  the  Composite. 
It  is  a  cross  between  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic, 
having  the  proportions  of  the  former.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  column  consists  of  an  acanthus  leaf 
motif  combined  with  the  scrolls  used  in  the 
Ionic  order.  In  the  opinion  of  many  this  is  the 
most  dignified  order. 

The  Use  of  the  Orders. — In  all  classical  build- 
ings one  or  more  orders  of  architecflure  were 
employed.  Sometimes  orders  were  placed  one 
above  another,  in  which  cases  the  more  massive 
orders  were  placed  below.  This  arrangement 
was  called  superposition.  Orders  of  architecflure 
were  used  in  colonnades,  arcades,  and  as  single 
columns  standing  alone,  such  as  the  Column  of 
Trajan,  which  is  147  feet  high.  In  fact,  orders 
were  used  in  every  conceivable  way,  in  con- 
ne(5lion  with  all  architecftural  forms,  and  sculp- 
ture was  everywhere  the  closely  allied  art. 

Although  the  classic  style  has  at  various  times 
been  revived  and  developed  only  to  fall  into 
degeneracy  and  disuse  again,  strange  to  say,  it 
still  persists  and  recurs  constantly  in  the  archi- 
tecflure of  the  world.  The  original  orders  are 
the  source  of  each  new  inspiration.  The  present 
day  use  of  the  ordqrs  of  architecflure,  commonly 
reduced  to  walls  and  cornices,  is  in  evidence 
on  all  sides.     The  entrance  porch  of  a  Colonial 

123 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

house  comprises  an  order  as  does  the  mantel- 
piece of  the  fireplace,  if  in  its  constru(5tion  a 
column  and  a  cornice  is  used.  In  pra(5lically 
every  strucfture  the  base,  the  shaft  and  the  cor- 
nice constitute  an  order,  and  in  many  cases  the 
order  either  emulates  or  suggests  one  of  the  five 
Roman  orders  of  architecflure. 

Eccentric  Mouldings  and  Ornament. — Each 
historical  style  of  archite(5lure  had  mouldings 
and  ornament  peculiar  to  itself  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  The  Gothic  style  may  be  said  to  be 
a  distincft  departure  from  the  classic  style,  al- 
though the  former  really  developed  from  the 
latter.  Gothic  mouldings  are  usually  sharp  and 
deep,  casting  strong  shadows,  and  are  usually 
coarse  or  large  in  scale.  The  chief  forms  used  are 
beaks,  beads,  splays,  under-cuts,  hollows,  three- 
quarter  rounds  and  beveled  edges.  New  mould- 
ings and  combinations  of  mouldings  are  being 
made  every  day  to  meet  certain  conditions  or 
satisfy  certain  individual  tastes.     (See  Plate  37.) 

Architecftural  ornament  is  a  subjecft  in  itself. 
The  Egyptians  used  the  lotus  plant  and  palm 
in  a  conventionalized  form  and  occasionally  the 
vulture  and  lion  form.  The  Assyrians  used  the 
animal  form  more  than  the  plant,  so  that  bulls, 
horses  and  lions  are  found  in  their  sculpture. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  developed  the  art  of 
sculpture  to  a  high  degree  and  favored  the  hu- 
man figure  as  a  subje(5l,  but  of  course  used  all 
other  known  forms.  The  authors  of  Gothic 
archite(fture  used  growing  pl^nt  forms  as  a  mo- 
tif, which  well  suited  their  progressive  style 
or  form  of  building.    They  also  used  grotesque 

124 


.      Plate  37 
Gothic  Mouldings  and  Forms 


I2S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

forms,  such  as  gargoyles,  which  probably  came 
about  through  lack  of  skill  in  the  original  sculp- 
tors themselves,  rather  than  through  any  humor- 
ous sense.  Later  architecture  is  largely  orna- 
mented with  geometrical  patterns  and  designs. 
In  all  architecflure  the  frieze  has  been  used  for 
ornament,  especially  relief  work  in  stone  or 
plaster,  but  sometimes  other  decoration,  such  as 
mosaics  and  painting.  It  may  be  said  that  in 
early  times  sculpture,  painting  and  like  arts  were 
subservient  to  architecflure,  and  only  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  have  they  been  inde- 
pendent. The  aesthetic  sense  is  always  in  evi- 
dence in  architecflure,  even  though  sometimes 
almost  overwhelmed  by  the  pracftical.  In  dire 
extremity  it  may  show  itself  in  little  brackets, 
rafter  ends  and  sawed  or  carved  edgings,  espe- 
cially in  the  houses  of  the  masses  throughout 
the  world. 

Character  of  Colonial  Houses. — Since  Co- 
lonial architecflure  is  classic  by  reason  of  its 
derivation,  the  forms  and  mouldings  of  the 
orders  of  architecflure  must  be  employed.  The 
main  cornice  of  the  building,  assuming  that  the 
house  is  of  correcfl  proportion,  is  the  most  im- 
portant feature  determining  its  characfler  and 
marking  the  building  as  Colonial.  This  cornice 
should  be  very  properly  designed  almost  accord- 
ing to  rule  of  Vignola,  but  of  necessity  adapted 
to  conditions  such  as  material.  The  wall  of  the 
building  becomes  the  shaft  or  the  column  of 
the  order  relatively  and  may  be  treated  by 
acflually  applying  pilasters  on  its  face,  especially 
at  the  corners.    When  a  two-story  porch  is  added 

X26 


CHARACTER  AND  MOULDINGS 
to  the  house  the  order  Is  complete  in  itself  and 
the  lines  of  the  order  are  the  same  in  both  the 
porch  and  the  body  of  the  house.  Examples  are 
very  plentiful.  In  the  design  of  small  porches 
for  the  house  it  is  again  necessary  to  employ  an 
order  and  use  classical  mouldings.  In  the  case 
of  a  Colonial  cottage  with  the  main  cornice  at 
the  height  of  the  second-floor  level  the  same 
order  should  be  used  for  it  as  for  the  porches. 
Dormers,  windows  and  doors  may  be  designed 
in  which  one  of  the  orders  is  used.  In  such 
details  an  order  is  more  often  suggested  by  the 
lines  and  mouldings  rather  than  worked  out 
literally.  Also  certain  door  and  window  treat- 
ments employed  by  original  users  of  classic  ar- 
chitecflure  in  connecftion  with  the  orders  have 
come  to  be  used  by  us  and  are  established  in 
that  way  as  Colonial.  A  thorough  study  of 
the  exteriors  of  historical  examples  of  colonial 
architecfture  is  the  only  way  to  acquire  familiar- 
ity with  exterior  design,  since  the  style  is  essen- 
tially historical,  and  more  than  that,  historically 
American.     (See  Plates  9  and  10.) 

The  interiors  of  Colonial  houses  both  old  and 
new  have  been  treated  in  an  almost  conven- 
tional manner.  A  radical  departure  would  not 
be  pleasing,  unless,  perhaps,  precedent  were 
abandoned  and  the  house  designed  according 
to  other  ideas,  in  which  case  it  would  no  longer 
be  Colonial.  The  mantelpiece  should  be  a  com- 
position embodying  the  principles  of  classic  ar- 
chitedlure,  but  could  be  very  plain  or  very 
elaborate  to  suit  the  place.  The  same  is  true 
of  all  other  architectural  furniture  and  fixtures 

127 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

which  should  be  stricftly  Colonial  in  design.  In- 
terior room  cornices,  whether  of  wood  or  plaster, 
should  have  the  Colonial  character.  Wainscot- 
ings,  baseboards,  architraves  and  especially  doors 
and  windows  must  be  carefully  worked  out  to 
conform  to  other  parts.  All  mouldings  in  Col- 
onial work  are  exceptionally  small  or  fine. 
The  scale  is  small.  The  relation  between  the 
detail  of  the  entire  fireplace  and  the  doorway 
opposite;  between  the  doorway  and  window; 
between  the  window  and  the  cornice  in  the 
room, — all  must  be  harmonious  and  pleasing. 
A  very  special  detail  in  the  Colonial  house  is  the 
staircase.  Quite  often  the  balustrade  forms  a 
spiral  around  the  newel  post,  which  is  supported 
upon  winding  steps  at  the  base  of  the  flight. 
The  balusters  may  be  delicate  spindles,  enameled 
white,  while  the  hand  rail  may  be  daintily  carved 
or  turned  from  mahogany. 

Character  of  Miscellaneous  Styles. — ^The  ex- 
terior of  an  English  house  is  pradiically  unmis- 
takable, but  the  variations  in  design  limitless. 
In  an  attempt  to  imitate  any  one  of  the  period 
styles  of  England,  thorough  study  of  examples 
is  essential.  However,  the  chief  charac5leristics 
of  the  American  English  house  are  a  steep  roof, 
half  timber  constru(5lion,  brickwork  in  Flemish 
bond,  English  Gothic  mouldings  and  exterior 
and  interior  features  peculiar  to  English  archi- 
tedlure.    (See. Plate  37.) 

Bungalow  and  modern  mission  domestic  ar- 
chite(5lure  are  distinguished  by  the  lack  of  mould- 
ings, sawed  details  of  constru(5lion  taking  their 
place  both  outside  and  inside.     On  the  outside, 

128 


Plate  38 
Diagrams  Showing  Exterior  Forms 


129 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

barge  boards,  sawed  rafter  ends,  sturdy  brackets 
and  outlookers,  solid  posts  and  severe  trim  in 
general  are  very  much  in  evidence.  On  the 
inside,  plain  board  trim,  heavy  fireplace  mantels, 
and  substantial  furniture  are  characfteristic  of 
the  style.  In  regard  to  design,  a  bungalow- 
should  be  kept  close  to  the  ground  and  may 
spread  out  in  a  number  of  irregular  low  masses. 
The  materials  employed  are  plaster  and  stained 
woodwork  for  the  most  part,  but  other  ma- 
terials may  be  incorporated.  As  a  matter  of 
facft,  Japanese  forms  and  details  have  been  imi- 
tated in  bungalow  design,  and  may  be  used 
effedlively.  They  are  much  finer  than  the  origi- 
nal forms.    (See  Plates  i8,  21,  28.) 

It  is  not  necessary  in  the  design  of  a  house  to 
adopt  a  style  of  architecflure.  A  building  may  be 
given  characfter  individually.  In  facft,  no  matter 
how  well  the  characfteristics  of  a  style  are  set 
forth  in  a  particular  house,  that  building  should 
express  characfler  in  itself.  This  is  accomplished 
after  much  study  by  a  careful  combination  of 
forms  and  mouldings  and  an  infusion  of  per- 
sonality and  individual  usefulness  into  the  de- 
sign. 

Sanitary  Mouldings  and  Treatment. — In 
kitchens  and  bathrooms,  and  sometimes  other 
rooms,  it  is  desirable  to  have  exceptionally  san- 
itary conditions.  Besides  having  the  walls,  ceil- 
ing and  floor  of  the  room  in  question  smooth 
and  hard,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  nooks  and 
crevices  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the  equip- 
ment and  especially  in  the  woodwork.  As  far 
as   possible,  mouldings   should  be  avoided  and 

130 


CHARACTER  AND  MOULDINGS 

smooth  trim  used,  but  where  necessary,  mould- 
ings in  the  form  of  bands  and  coves  may  be  used. 
These  mouldings  may  be  so  placed  as  to  pra(5li- 
cally  eliminate  cracks  and  sinkages  which  colled: 
dirt.  Coves  set  flush  in  the  angle  made  by  the 
baseboard  and  the  floor  and  in  all  other  angles 
subjedl  to  unsanitary  conditions  are  very  ad- 
vantageous. The  trim  for  doors,  windows  and 
fixtures  may  be  perfecftly  smooth  bands  or  cas- 
ings. Projecfting  high  ledges  and  tops  of  fixtures 
which  collecfl  dust  should  be  eliminated. 

Conclusion. — Chara(5ler  and  mouldings  is  a 
subjecft  upon  which  much  may  be  said  and  little 
comprehended  without  a(5tually  studying  archi- 
tecftural  design  and  doing  original  work.  This 
means  years  of  application  to  a  specialty  and 
amounts  to  architecflure  as  a  profession.  One 
fa(5l  may  be  repeated, — that  characfter  is  given 
to  a  building  or  an  article  of  furniture  by  means 
of  mass,  line  and  mouldings.  To  do  this  unerr- 
ingly, all  of  the  principles  of  design  and  com- 
position must  be  in  the  mind  of  the  designer. 


131 


Sketch  Problems. 

(i)  Draw  two  columns  and  an  entablature,  using  the 
Doric  order.  Let  the  sketch  represent  a  small  entrance 
to  a  Colonial  house.  The  columns  may  be  eight  feet  high. 
Use  y2"  scale. 

(2)  Copy  a  Gothic  staircase. 

(3)  Draw  a  cross-section  of  a  sanitary  picture  mould, 
chair  rail  and  baseboard.  Show  how  they  are  applied  to 
adjacent  parts  and  held  in  place. 

References 

Ware. — The  American  Vignola. 

Robinson. — Architecftural  Composition. 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher. — A  History  of  Architecfture. 


133 


CHAPTER    VII.      COMMON    BUILDING 
MATERIALS 

BUILDING  Stones. — Stone  as  a  build- 
ing material  has  been  used  extensively 
in  all  ages.  The  common  stones  now 
in  use  are  granite,  limestone,  marble, 
sandstone,  and  slate.  Granites  are  massive 
rocks  composed  principally  of  quartz,  mica  and 
feldspar  in  varying  proportions.  Granites  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  quartz  are  very  hard, , 
but  when  containing  a  considerable  portion  of 
feldspar  are  easily  cut.  Granites  vary  in  color 
from  light  to  dark  gray  and  from  pink  to  red, 
the  colors  determined  chiefly  by  the  feldspar. 
Although  granite  is  quite  easily  cut  into  blocks, 
it  is  extremely  tough  for  cut  stonework.  This 
stone  is  used  especially  for  columns,  steps  and 
bases  for  large  buildings.  Stones  may  be  se- 
cured of  practically  any  size.  The  chief  states 
in  which  granite  is  quarried  are  Maine,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Connedticut,  New  Hampshire, 
Rhode  Island,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Mis- 
souri, Wisconsin,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  South  Carolina, 
Colorado  and  California. 

Limestones  may  differ  to  a  great  extent  in 
origin,  stru(5lure  and  color.  Besides  carbonate 
of  lime,  they  contain  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
iron,  silica,  clay,  bituminous  matter,  mica  or 
talc.  Most  of  the  stones  are  originally  derived 
from  deposits  built  up  of  shells,  fossils,  and  like 
marine  materials.  The  color  is  light  gray,  dark 
blue,  cream  or  buff,  and  most  stones  will  take 
a  high  polish.    This  stone  is  a  very  pradlical  and 

133 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

substantial  material  for  window  sills,  and  other 
stone  trimmings.  However,  it  does  not  with- 
stand a  great  amount  of  heat.  The  chief  states 
in  which  limestone  is  found  are,  first  of  all: 
Indiana,  where  Bedford  stone  is  quarried,  and 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Florida,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania  and   Wisconsin. 

Marble  is  a  limestone  in  a  crystallized  state, 
and  therefore  capable  of  taking  a  better  polish 
than  limestone.  Marbles  are  rather  scarce, 
hard  to  quarry,  and  subjecfl  to  staining  when 
used  outside,  on  account  of  iron  oxides  in  them. 
They  are  especially  adapted  to  carving.  The 
common  use  of  marble  is  as  a  veneer  on  inside 
walls,  so  it  is  cut  in  very  thin  slabs  and  applied 
by  means  of  a  cement.  Slabs  are  usually  only 
an  inch  or  two  thick,  and  are  set  up  in  such  a 
way  as  to  match  in  case  there  is  a  decided  streak 
or 'figure  in  the  slabs.  Much  of  the  marble 
used  in  the  United  States  is  imported  from  Italy, 
and  from  Mexico.  Tennessee,  Vermont,  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania, 
California,  Alabama,  Washington,  Arkansas, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  Mis- 
souri and  Alaska  produce  marble  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Of  these,  Vermont  is  the  great- 
est producer. 

"Sandstones  are  composed  of  rounded  and 
angular  grains  of  sand  so  cemented  and  com- 
padted  together  as  to  form  a  solid  rock.  The 
cementing  material  may  be  silica,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  iron  oxide  or  clay  matter."    Sandstones 

134 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

are  used  more  extensively  than  any  other  stones 
as  a  building  material,  and  are  found  through- 
out the  country.  The  quality  varies  to  a  great 
extent,  the  sand  in  all  cases  being  of  pure  quartz, 
but  the  cementing  material  being  composed  of 
different  substances  which  may  or  may  not  be 
substantial.  The  most  objecftionable  cementing 
material  is  clay,  the  stone  being  liable  to  de- 
composition on  account  of  moisture  and  frost. 
The  colors  are  drab,  blue,  buff,  gray,  brown  and 
pink,  and  are  due  largely  to  the  iron  in  the  com- 
position. Oxides  of  iron  in  any  building  stone 
are  liable  to  cause  stains  if  used  on  the  exterior 
of  the  building.  The  texture  of  sandstones 
varies  from  very  fine  to  very  coarse  grain.  The 
fine-grained  stones  are  the  best  in  every  re- 
spe(5l. 

Slate  is  used  principally  for  covering  the  roofs 
of  buildings.  However,  it  is  used  also  for  black- 
boards, table  tops  and  miscellaneous  purposes. 
Ordinary  roofing  slate  is  compacfl,  silicious  clay. 
A  peculiar  charadleristic  of  slate  is  its  tendency 
to  split  into  very  thin  sheets,  with  surfaces  so 
smooth  as  to  be  made  to  fit  closely  together, 
which  with  its  strength,  toughness  and  imper- 
viousness  to  water  cause  it  to  be  a  valuable  ma- 
terial for  shingles.  Slate  varies  in  color  to  a 
considerable  extent,  being  black,  blue,  purple, 
gray  and  green.  In  a  few  localities  red  slate  is 
found.  A  fine  grain  in  a  slate  is  a  good  quality. 
The  cutting  of  the  shingles  should  be  with  the 
grain,  so  that  in  case  the  shingle  splits,  the  piece 
will  probably  remain  in  place.  This  material 
is  produced  in  Pennsylvania,  Vermont,  Maine, 

I3S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Virginia,  Maryland,  California,  New  York,  Ar- 
kansas and  Georgia. 

Of  the  other  building  stones,  tuffs  is  of  some 
importance,  being  of  volcanic  origin  and  some- 
times called  lava  stone.  It  is  very  light  in  weight, 
on  account  of  its  porosity.  Blue  shale  is  a  variety 
of  sandstone,  used  slightly.  Trap  is  a  hard  rock 
suitable  for  foundations.  Soapstone  is  a  very 
soft  rock  used  sometimes  for  sinks. 

A  wall  may  be  of  solid  stone,  or  may  be  of 
stone  facing  with  a  background  of  brick  or 
concrete.  Stone  facing  is  called  ashlar.  The 
common  types  of  solid  stonework  are  rubble 
walls,  made  of  undressed  rough  stones  bonded 
securely  together,  and  usually  laid  at  random, 
and  field  stone  walls,  made  of  small  round 
boulders.  The  methods  of  joining  are  many, 
in  some  cases  the  rough  stones  having  a  sort 
of  pattern,  and  in  other  cases  the  stones  having 
an  arrangement  called  for  by  the  shape  of  the 
stone  itself.  Solid  stonework  of  these  types  is 
used  especially  in  rustic  buildings  and  walls  for 
retaining  earth  and  for  fencing  purposes. 

Ashlar  is  laid  as  broken  ashlar  and  coursed 
ashlar.  By  broken  ashlar  is  meant  the  use  of 
stones  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  which  are 
fitted  together  at  random,  but  which  have  been 
especially  cut  for  the  purpose.  By  coursed 
ashlar  is  meant  the  laying  of  stones  according 
to  a  certain  pattern,  which  may  be  regular  plumb 
bound,  irregular  plumb  bound  and  other  com- 
binations using  stones  of  one  size,  two  sizes, 
and  three  sizes,  up  to  six  or  eight  certain  sizes. 
The  face  of  cut  stonework  may  have  a  number  of 

136 


=  r^^^^ 


ri]'ililiT,iTiilj  > 


m 

z 

fso 


r 


J 
J 
< 


z 

0 
H 

< 
J 

in 
< 


Plate  39 
Stonework 


137 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

finishes  made  by  the  use  of  different  tools.  Of 
these  finishes  the  common  ones  are  rockfaced 
stonework,  in  which  the  face  of  each  stone  is 
left  in  the  rough;  pointed  stonework  with  a  mar- 
gin, in  which  the  face  is  pointed  with  a  tool 
and  the  margin  left  smooth;  tool  stonework,  in 
which  the  face  of  the  stone  has  small  vertical 
ribs;  bush  hammered  stonework  in  which  the 
surface  has  been  pounded  with  a  bush  hammer; 
vermiculated  stonework,  in  which  the  surface  is 
treated  as  though  it  had  been  worked  upon  by 
worms;  and  fish  scale  stonework,  in  which  the 
surface  has  been  hammered  to  look  like  scales. 

Stones  are  cut  in  every  conceivable  shape  and 
pattern  to  form  architecflural  features  such  as 
arches,  quoins,  lintels  and  sills.  The  joints  are 
pointed  with  mortar,  and  may  be  raked  out  to  a 
cove  or  set  off  as  a  bead,  and  sometimes  given 
other  shapes  for  the  sake  of  effe(5l  or  to  turn 
water.     (See  Plate  39.) 

Bricks. — Bricks  were  first  used  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, being  made  of  mud  baked  in  the  sun; 
later  they  were  burned  similarly  to  the  present 
method  and  employed  extensively.  The  Assyri- 
ans developed  them  to  a  high  degree  and  made 
ornamental  brick  friezes  on  the  interior  of  their 
palaces  as  well  as  walls,  pavements  and  other 
features.  At  all  times  they  have  been  an  impor- 
tant material,  but  in  early  times  were  used  more 
as  a  solid  stni(5lural  mass  upon  which  to  secure 
costly  marble,  stone  and  alabaster,  than  as  a 
finish  material.  Since  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire  bricks  have  gradually  assumed  a  vast 
importance  as  a  surface  material,  the  greatest 

138 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

Strides  in  the  improvement  of  them  having  been 
taken  in  recent  years. 

Bricks  are  extensively  used  as  a  building  ma- 
terial throughout  the  United  States,  nearly 
every  locality  having  a  brickyard  of  its  own. 
The  kinds  of  brick  are  much  varied,  depending 
upon  the  clay  used  and  the  method  of  burning. 
Ordinarily  bricks  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  sand,  to  which  foreign  substances  have 
been  added  to  give  the  produdl  certain  char- 
acfteristics.  Bricks  are  moulded,  or  pressed, 
from  soft  or  stiff  mud,  either  by  hand  or  by 
machinery,  and  after  being  dried  are  burnt  in  a 
kiln.  This  process  varies  chiefly  in  the  draft 
of  the  kiln,  whether  up  or  down,  and  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  stack  of  dry  bricks  which  are 
to  be  burnt.  In  the  burning  process,  the  bricks 
farthest  from  the  heat  remain  rather  soft  and 
light  in  color  and  shrink  less  than  the  others. 

Common  bricks,  used  for  backgrounds  and 
protecfted  walls,  are  soft,  porous  and  cheap  in 
price.  Paving  bricks  are  extra  large,  hard  and 
strong.  They  usually  have  rounded  edges  and 
are  vitrified  or  made  impervious  to  water  by 
burning  to  a  vitrified  state,  this  being  brought 
about  by  the  fusion  of  the  silica  and  other  in- 
gredients of  the  clay.  Fire  bricks,  used  to  line 
furnaces,  chimneys  and  fireplaces,  are  porous 
and  infusible.  They  are  made  of  raw  flint  clay 
and  plastic  clay.  Face  bricks  are  of  many  kinds 
including  glazed  and  enameled  bricks,  pressed 
bricks  and  moulded  bricks.  Glazed  bricks  are 
made  by  applying  to  the  two  finished  sides  dur- 
ing manufa(fture  a  coat  of  "slip"  made  of  ball- 

139 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

clay,  kaolin,  flint  and  feldspar,  and  a  coat  of 
glaze.  The  substance  composing  the  glaze  fuses 
and  becomes  transparerit,  leaving  the  bricks  the 
color  of  the  "slip"  which  may  vary.  Enameled 
bricks  are  made  by  applying  a  coat  of  enamel  to  a 
burned  or  unburned  brick  and  fusing  the  coating 
by  heat.  The  enamel  is  opaque  and  gives  to  the 
bricks  color.  Pressed  bricks  are  made  in  a  dry- 
press  machine  and  are  very  even  in  size  with 
true  edges.  They  may  be  of  any  brick  color. 
Moulded  bricks  are  special  forms  of  pressed 
bricks  used  for  arches,  cornices  and  circular 
walls. 

Texture  in  bricks  and  brickwork  is  important. 
A  very  pleasing  texture  for  a  brick  is  acquired 
by  splitting  the  wet  clay  with  a  coarse  wire, 
thereby  making  bricks  each  with  a  wire-cut 
end  and  side.  This  is  called  a  wire-cut  brick, 
the  surface  having  a  rough,  dragged  finish  in 
which  the  particles  lean  in  the  direcftion  that  the 
wire  passed  through.  Other  textures  are  ac- 
quired by  the  use  of  acids  and  peculiar  methods 
known  only  to  the  manufacfturers. 

The  color  of  bricks  depends  largely  upon  the 
composition  of  the  clay  used  in  the  manufacfture 
of  them,  and  also  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
kiln  or  parts  of  the  kiln.  Pure  clay  produces  a 
white  brick.  Oxide  of  iron  causes  bricks  to  be 
from  red  to  purple  in  color.  Iron  and  lime  pro- 
duce in  bricks  a  cream  or  drab  color.  Magnesia 
brings  about  a  brown,  while  magnesia  and  iron 
together  bring  about  a  yellow  color.  Certain 
colors  are  produced  purposely  by  mixing  clays, 
applying  mineral  pigments  to  the  surfaces  before 

140 


Plate  40 
Brickwork 


141 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

burning  the  bricks  and  by  adding  chemicals  or 
mortar  colors  to  the  clay  in  the  dry  pan. 

The  standard  size  of  common  bricks  is  874  x 
4  X  274  inches;  of  face  bricks  is  S^/g  x  4  x  2^/3 
inches;  of  paving  bricks  is  872  x  4  x  272  inches; 
and  of  Roman  bricks,  distinguished  by  this  size, 
12  X  4  X  172  inches.  However,  the  acftual  sizes 
of  bricks  vary  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  nec- 
essary to  measure  each  kind  and  lot  of  bricks  to 
go  into  a  building  before  establishing  the  exacft 
dimensions  for  the  parts  of  the  building  related 
to  the  brickwork.  A  stretcher  should  be  the 
same  length  as  two  headers  and  a  mortar  joint 
and  also  the  same  length  as  three  brick  courses 
laid  in  place  in  order  that  bricks  fit  well  in  the 
wall.  A  brick  is  said  to  be  approximately  8x4x2 
inches  in  size  and  to  weigh  five  pounds. 

Patterns  on  the  surface  of  brick  walls,  called 
diaper  work,  are  quite  common,  and  beautiful 
examples  may  be  seen  in  Italy,  England  and 
other  places.  Surface  patterns  are  made  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  bricks  and  the  use  of,  per- 
haps, a  number  of  shades  or  colors.  The  bond  in 
brickwork  is  especially  important.  Bond  serves 
the  purpose  of  holding  the  bricks  substantially 
together,  and  also  of  giving  a  pleasing  effecfl  to 
the  wall.  Among  the  bonds  used  are  the  common 
bond,  plumb  bond,  Flemish  bond,  English  bond, 
and  cross  bond.  Numerous  other  bonds  are 
invented  and  employed  in  individual  cases  by 
architecfts.  Brick  joints  are  like  stone  joints, 
and  may  be  struck  with  a  drip  for  water,  may 
be  raked  out  or  may  be  pointed  flush  with  the 
wall.    (See  Plate  40.) 

142 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

Terra  Cotta. — Terra  cotta  is  a  building  ma- 
terial made  by  moulding  clay  according  to  a 
certain  given  design,  and  burning  it  similarly 
to  bricks,  but  it  is  a  more  finished  producft.  A 
good  clay,  which  when  fired  will  partially  vitrify, 
is  required.  The  surface  of  terra  cotta  is  treated 
in  a  number  of  ways,  chiefly  by  painting  with  a 
substance  before  firing,  which  will  give  it  color 
and  the  quality  of  resistance  to  moisture  and 
gases  in  the  air.  Pracftically  any  required  color 
or  combination  of  colors  may  be  attained. 

Terra  cotta  as  a  building  material  has  made 
great  advancement  in  the  last  few  years.  It  is 
a  material  in  itself  and  not  an  imitation,  so  that 
it  should  be  used  as  such  rather  than  in  imitation 
of  stone.  Terra  cotta  is  especially  good  for  the 
facing  of  down  town  buildings,  on  account  of  its 
durability,  beauty  and  cheapness,  and  may  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  brick.  It  has  come  to 
be  used  satisfacftorily  in  residence  work  as  well, 
especially  in  the  formal  type  of  house.  For  fire- 
places, urns  and  garden  features  it  is  very  serv- 
iceable. 

Tiles. — ^Tiles  are  a  clay  producft  made  accord- 
ing to  the  ceramic  principles  employed  in  the 
manufacfture  of  bricks  and  terra  cotta.  They 
are  made  in  a  number  of  shapes  and  for  different 
purposes.  Roof  tile,  although  made  in  many 
styles,  has  the  characfteristics  of  slate,  lapping 
one  over  another  and  made  impervious  to  water. 
The  colors  usually  employed  for  roofing  tile  are 
red,  green  and  gray. 

Tiles  are  also  used  for  conducfting  water  under- 
ground.     These    are    common    drain    tiles    for 

143 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

carrying  off  seepage  water  and  vitrified  sewer 
tile  for  carrying  off  sewage.  The  latter  is  always 
laid  in  cement  mortar  to  prevent  leakage  of  gas 
from  the  drain. 

A  very  important  building  material  is  terra 
cotta  hollow  tile.  This  is  of  a  number  of  makes, 
and  consists  of  hollow  tile  blocks  thick  enough 
to  form  a  wall  when  laid  one  above  another  in  a 
bed  of  cement  mortar.  The  sizes  vary  for  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  walls,  since  outside  walls  may  be 
a  great  height  in  some  buildings,  and  must  nec- 
essarily be  thick.  For  partitions  the  tiles  are 
usually  only  four  inches  thick.  Tiles  of  similar 
make  are  used  for  floors  so  that  pradlically  a 
whole  building  may  be  construcfted  of  tile  which 
would  make  it  nearly  fireproof.  In  tile  or  other 
fireproof  constru<flion  there  are  usually  some 
parts  that  are  inflammable,  such  as  finish  wood- 
work. Tile  constru(5lion  requires  skilled  work- 
men familiar  with  the  nature  of  the  material 
and  the  methods  of  erecfling  such  a  building,  so 
that  it  will  be  substantial.  Hollow  tile  walls 
may  be  plastered  outside  and  in  without  much 
danger  of  dampness  or  disfiguration  of  finished 
surfaces  on  account  of  dampness. 

Concrete. — ^The  use  of  concrete  was  known  to 
the  Egyptians,  Romans  and  other  early  builders. 
They  probably  used  a  natural  cement  with  sand, 
gravel  and  water  to  produce  it.  Not  only  did 
the  Romans  build  concrete  aquedu(fts,  buildings 
and  roads  but  they  also  plastered  their  walls 
with  a  cement  plaster  much  like  our  own  modern 
producft.  Many  examples  are  still  in  evidence, 
showing  the  permanence  of  their  work.    In  fadt 

144 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
the  Romans  at  one  time  almost  depended  upon 
plaster  as  a  wall  finish  both  inside  and  out. 

Concrete  is  an  exceptionally  useful  material 
for  footings,  foundations,  walls,  floors  and  walks 
subjedl  to  hard  usage.  Common  concrete  is 
made  by  mixing  Portland  cement  and  sand 
together  dry,  which  composition  is  mixed  with 
gravel  or  crushed  rock  and  water.  The  whole 
substance,  while  still  freshly  made,  and  very 
soft,  is  poured  into  plank  forms,  holding  it  in 
place,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for  several 
days  and  set  into  a  hard  monolithic  mass. 
The  quality  of  concrete  is  determined  by  the 
proportion  and  quality  of  the  ingredients.  For 
very  strong  concrete  work  one  part  of  cement, 
two  parts  of  sand  and  four  parts  of  gravel  are 
mixed  together  with  water  and  allowed  to  set. 
For  very  weak  concrete,  one  part  of  cement, 
three  parts  of  sand  and  seven  parts  of  gravel 
may  be  used.  For  ordinary  foundation  walls 
used  in  houses,  a  mixture  of  1 :3 15  is  perhaps 
economical  and  perfe(5lly  safe.  Wearing  sur- 
faces on  floors  should  be  put  on  separately  from 
the  mass  of  concrete  but  not  after  the  mass  is 
hard  and  dry.  It  should  be  applied  evenly  and 
jointed  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep  to  prevent 
cracking  in  other  places  than  the  joints  since  in 
contracftion  and  settlement  of  the  floor  there  is 
necessarily  a  shrinkage.  These  joints  are  the 
same  as  regular  expansion  and  contracftion  joints 
in  larger  concrete  works.  A  wearing  surface 
should  be  composed  of  one  part  of  cement  and 
one  or  two  of  sand. 

Reinforced  concrete  work  has  assumed  a  vast 
14s 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

importance  in  recent  years,  and  is  construdled 
by  using  steel  bars  enclosed  within  the  concrete 
mass  to  give  it  tensile  strength.  Columns, 
beams,  floor  slabs  and  arches  are  made  in  this 
manner.  The  fundamental  principle  of  rein- 
forced concrete  is  based  on  the  ia.6t  that  concrete 
and  steel  expand  and  contracft  in  the  same  ratio 
under  various  conditions  of  heat  and  cold, 
thereby  preventing  the  breakage  of  either  the  one 
or  the  other  with  the  shrinkage  or  expansion  of 
the  whole  mass. 

Concrete  is  ordinarily  the  .cheapest  form  of 
masonry  construcftion  when  used  as  common 
concrete  for  walls  and  floors.  A  handy  material 
but  one  lacking  chara(5ler  is  the  ready-made 
concrete  block  usually  manufacftured  to  imitate 
stone. 

Wood. — Wood  is  the  most  common  building 
material,  and  is  used  extensively  for  prac- 
tically every  purpose.  Woods  may  be  classified 
as  endogens  or  inside  growers  and  exogens  or 
outside  growers.  The  former  include  bamboos 
and  palms  growing  as  a  single  stem  which  does 
not  become  larger  with  age  but  only  longer. 
The  latter  include  all  broad-leaved  trees  and 
conifers  or  needle-leaved  trees.  The  exogens 
grow  in  the  following  manner:  Wood  strudiure 
consists  of  cells.  These  are  pores  running  the 
length  of  the  wood  and  pith  rays  running  at 
right  angles  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  from  the 
bark  to  the  pith  in  thin  sheets.  When  the  tree 
begins  to  grow  in  the  spring  the  new  cells  formed 
by  the  sap  are  large  and  thin-walled  but  late  in 
the   summer   the   new   cells   formed   are   much 

146 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
denser.  Thus  spring  wood  is  light  in  color  while 
summer  wood  is  relatively  dark,  enabling  one  to 
distinguish  the  ring  of  growth  around  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  by  which  the  age  of  the  tree  may  be 
ascertained.  As  the  tree  grows  older  the  cells 
toward  the  centre  of  the  trunk  become  hard  and 
dark  in  color  and  are  no  longer  useful  for  the 
growth  but  for  the  supporting  of  the  increased 
weight  of  the  tree.  This  inner  cylinder  of  wood 
is  called  "heartwood."  The  outer  cells  continue 
to  convey  sap  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the 
tree  and  remain  for  a  while  soft  and  light  in 
color.  This  outer  belt  of  wood  is  called  "sap- 
wood."  Sapwood  is,  then,  immature  heart- 
wood.  In  tropical  woods  that  grow  continu- 
ously, rings  of  growth  are  not  discernible  and  in 
some  trees,  such  as  basswood,  heartwood  and 
sapwood  are  hardly  distinguishable.  By  lumber- 
men timber  is  classified  into  "hard  woods" 
and  "soft  woods,"  but  some  of  the  hard  woods 
are  not  really  as  hard  as  some  of  the  soft  woods. 
(See  Plate  41.) 

The  hard  woods  are  said  to  be  porous  woods. 
When  large  pores  develop  early  in  the  season 
and  small  pores  late  in  the  season,  the  wood  is 
ring-porous  as  is  the  case  with  hickory,  oak  and 
ash.  When  small  even  pores  develop  through- 
out the  season,  the  wood  is  diffuse-porous  as  is 
the  case  with  maple,  walnut  and  birch.  The 
soft  woods  are  said  to  be  non-porous.  The  grain 
of  hard  woods  brought  about  by  annual  growths 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  tree  is  usually 
fine  and  irregular  while  of  soft  woods  it  is  coarse 
and  even.    The  term  "grain"  refers  to  the  lines 

147 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  a  piece  of  finished 
lumber.  In  general,  hard  woods  are  more  dur- 
able, handsome  and  costly  than  are  soft  woods. 

In  regard  to  the  preparation  of  lumber  for 
building  purposes  the  first  operation  consists 
of  selecting  and  felling  trees  of  the  forest  which 
are  sent  in  the  form  of  logs  to  a  mill  to  be  sawed 
into  proper  and  convenient  sizes  and  shapes. 
Among  the  defecfls  in  logs  may  be  mentioned 
shakes,  which  are  cracks  in  the  heartwood,  often 
star-shaped,  brought  about  by  contracftion  of  the 
old  wood;  large  knots  which  mark  the  source 
of  growth  of  limbs  of  the  tree;  and  decay  of 
the  heartwood.  Heartwood  rots  only  when 
exposed  to  the  air  by  the  failure  of  some  other 
part  of  the  tree.  Logs  are  sawed  in  two  ways : — 
common  and  quarter-sawed.  By  common  saw- 
ing is  meant  the  cutting  of  the  entire  log  into 
thin  slabs.  By  quarter  sawing  is  meant  the 
quartering  of  the  entire  log  and  cutting  each 
quarter  into  slabs,  taking  care  to  saw  in  the 
direcftion  which  will  cut  through  the  annual 
rings  of  wood.  All  high  class  logs  of  hard  wood 
and  occasionally  of  soft  wood  are  sawed  in  this 
manner,  and  unless  thus  manipulated  are  not 
desirable.  In  common  sawing,  a  large  amount 
of  the  lumber  is  necessarily  sawed  almost  hor- 
izontally to  the  rings  of  growth,  thus  producing 
a  coarse-grained  surface  in  the  lumber  which  is 
readily  discernible.  In  common  sawing,  the 
lumber  sawed  vertically  to  the  rings  of  growth 
is  exadtly  like  quartered  lumber  and  is  usually 
selected  for  flooring  and  other  purposes.  It  is 
called  "edge-grained"  lumber.     (See  Plate  41.) 

148 


Plate  41 
Wood 


149 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Timber  is  seasoned  by  evaporating  the  mois- 
ture from  the  pieces,  either  naturally  or  arti- 
ficially. When  seasoned  artificially,  the  lumber 
is  stacked  in  a  kiln  and  a  current  of  hot  air 
is  made  to  pass  through  it  until  the  moisture  is 
evaporated.  Lumber  is  tested  for  moisture  by 
weighing,  and  since  the  weights  of  woods  are 
known,  it  can  readily  be  determined  when  all 
of  the  moisture  has  been  removed.  Dry  wood 
will  absorb  water  very  readily,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  to  protecft  finishing  wood  at  all  times, 
even  when  nailed  in  place  in  a  building.  Wood 
has  a  great  tendency  to  shrink,  the  shrinking 
process  continuing  in  many  cases  for  a  year 
or  more,  depending  upon  conditions.  Hard 
woods  more  than  soft  woods  have  a  tendency 
to  warp  when  one  side  is  exposed  to  moisture 
or  heat.  Shrinkage  in  wood  is  a  trait  which 
must  be  considered  at  all  times  when  working 
with  it.  To  avoid  warping  and  shrinkage,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  the  wood  carefully  seasoned 
before  manufacfluring  articles  from  it,  and  to 
prote(5t  the  article  when  finished. 

Of  the  hard  woods  common  in  the  United 
States  and  used  for  strudlural  purposes  the 
following  are  described  in  the  approximate 
order  of  their  hardness: 

Shellbark  hickory  grows  throughout  the  east 
central  states.  The  color  is  reddish  brown  ex- 
cept the  sapwood  which  is  quite  light.  The  wood 
is  very  heavy,  very  strong,  very  elastic  and  very 
hard.  It  is  used  especially  for  implements  that 
require  great  toughness  of  material,  but  it  is  also 
used  for  household  furniture. 

ISO 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

Black  hickory  grows  in  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern states.  It  is  dark  brown  to  white  in 
color.  The  grain  is  straight  and  close.  The 
wood  is  very  heavy,  very  strong,  very  elastic, 
and  very  hard.  It  is  used  much  as  shellbark 
hickory  and  is  confounded  with  it  but  is  not  as 
good. 

White  oak  grows  throughout  the  eastern  and 
east  central  states.  It  is  light  brown  in  color 
and  crooked  in  grain.  The  wood  is  heavy,  strong, 
elastic  and  hard.  White  oak  is  the  most  im- 
portant hard  wood  and  is  used  for  interior  finish, 
furniture,  shipbuilding,  implements  and  framing. 

Western  white  oak  grows  in  western  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon.  The  color  of  the  wood  is 
light  brown  and  the  grain  very  close  and  crooked. 
It  is  heavy,  strong,  medium  elastic,  and  hard. 
Unless  carefully  seasoned  it  warps  badly.  On 
the  Pacific  Coast  it  takes  the  place  to  some  ex- 
tent of  white  oak  and  is  used  similarly. 

Bur  oak  grows  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  It  is 
dark  brown  in  color  and  crooked  in  grain. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  very  strong,  elastic,  and 
hard.  It  is  used  for  shipbuilding,  cooperage,  and 
cabinetwork.  In  commerce  it  is  not  especially 
distinguished  from  white  oak. 

Red  oak,  black  oak,  basket  oak,  and  post  oak 
grow  chiefly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  each  having  distinguishing  features  but 
used  much  as  are  other  oaks. 

.Black  locust,  also  called  locust  and  yellow 
locust,  grows  chiefly  in  the  Allegheny  Mountains 
but  is  found  elsewhere.  It  is  brown  in  color  and 
crooked   in   grain.     The   wood   is   heavy,   very 

151 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Strong,  elastic  and  very  hard.  It  Is  used  for 
shipbuilding,  general  construdlion,  implements 
and  occasionally  for  interior  finish. 

White  ash  grows  in  the  eastern  and  east 
central  states.  The  wood  is  light  brown  In 
color  and  very  straight  in  grain.  It  is  heavy, 
strong,  elastic  and  hard;  also  it  warps  but  little. 
White  ash  is  used  for  interior  finish,  farm  im- 
plements, carriages,  oars  and  baskets. 

Oregon  ash  grows  on  the  north  Pacific  Coast. 
The  wood  is  brown  and  the  grain  coarse  and 
straight.  It  is  medium  heavy,  medium  strong, 
medium  elastic,  and  medium  hard.  It  is  used  for 
furniture,  vehicles  and  sometimes  for  interior 
finish. 

Black  ash  grows  in  the  New  England  states 
and  In  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  does 
best  in  moist  places.  The  wood  is  dark  brown 
in  color  and  straight  in  grain,  except  a  few  pieces 
which  have  burls,  causing  them  to  be  valuable 
as  veneers.  It  is  medium  heavy,  strong,  medium 
elastic,  and  quite  hard.  This  wood  is  used  for 
interior  finish,  cabinetwork,  fencing,  cooperage, 
and  skis.     It  Is  known  for  Its  flexibility. 

Cork  elm,  also  called  rock  elm,  hickory  elm, 
white  elm  and  cllfi^  elm,  grows  south  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  The  wood  is  light  brown  or  red  In  color 
and  the  grain  is  interlaced.  It  Is  heavy,  very 
strong,  elastic,  and  hard.  This  wood  Is  probably 
the  best  kind  of  elm  and  is  used  for  heavy  fram- 
ing and  farm  Implements. 

American  elm,  also  called  white  elm,  and 
water  elm,  grows  throughout  the  central  and 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.    The  wood  is 

152 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
light  brown  in  color  and  the  grain  is  interlaced. 
It  is  quite  heavy,  strong,  medium  elastic,  and 
medium  hard.  The  wood  is  used  for  flooring 
and  cooperage.  The  tree  itself  is  a  favorite 
ornamental  shade  tree. 

Wild  black  cherry  grows  throughout  the  east- 
ern and  central  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
wood  is  light  brown  or  red  in  color  and  the  grain 
is  very  close  and  fine.  It  is  medium  heavy, 
medium  strong,  medium  elastic  and  medium 
hard.  It  is  used  for  cabinetwork  and  interior 
finish. 

Black  walnut  grows  in  the  east  central  part 
of  the  United  States  and  especially  in  Tennessee. 
The  wood  is  chocolate  brown  in  color  except 
the  sapwood  which  is  very  much  lighter.  It  is 
medium  heavy,  strong,  elastic  and  hard.  It  is 
used  for  cabinetwork  and  interior  finish,  often 
being  applied  as  a  veneer.  Formerly  the  wood 
was  used  in  a  prodigal  manner  for  furniture  and 
interior  trim  but  has  now  become  so  scarce  as 
to  be  highly  valuable,  in  facft,  the  most  valuable 
domestic  wood  of  the  United  States.  By  many 
it  is  considered  to  be  more  handsome  than 
mahogany. 

Butternut  or  white  walnut  grows  in  the  east 
central  part  of  the  United  States.  The  wood  is 
light  brown  in  color  and  fairly  straight  grained. 
It  is  light  in  weight,  quite  weak,  medium  elastic 
and  soft.  It  is  used  for  cabinetwork  and  interior 
finish. 

Beech  grows  throughout  the  eastern  states. 
The  wood  is  reddish  in  color  and  quite  varia- 
ble.     It    is    heavy,    very    strong,    elastic    and 

IS3 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

hard.  It  is  used  for  furniture,  implements  and 
flooring. 

Hard  maple,  also  called  sugar  maple  and  rock 
maple,  grows  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  wood  is  light  brown  to  red  in  color 
and  the  grain  is  crooked  and  fine.  It  is  heavy, 
very  strong,  very  elastic,  and  very  hard.  It  is 
used  for  furniture,  carved  articles,  implements, 
and  piano  a(5lions.  Birds-eye  maple  and  curly 
maple,  once  very  popular,  are  accidental  vari- 
eties of  hard  maple. 

Soft  maple,  also  called  white  maple,  and  silver 
maple,  grows  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  wood  is  brown  in  color  and  the 
grain  is  twisted  and  fine.  It  is  medium  heavy, 
very  strong,  very  elastic  and  hard.  It  is  used 
for  flooring,  furniture  and  woodenware. 

Oregon  maple  grows  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  It 
is  dark  brown  and  red  in  color  and  close  in  grain. 
The  wood  is  light  in  weight,  medium  strong, 
medium  elastic  and  medium  hard.  It  is  used 
for  interior  finish,  flooring,  furniture  and  tools. 
In  its  native  region  it  is  a  very  valuable  wood. 

Birch  grows  in  the  south  and  the  east.  There 
are  many  varieties  not  usually  distinguished 
from  one  another  in  commerce.  The  wood  is 
from  light  brown  to  dark  brown  in  color,  and 
the  grain  is  close  and  sometimes  satin-like.  It 
is  heavy,  very  strong,  very  elastic  and  hard.  It 
is  used  for  woodenware,  furniture  and  ship- 
building. 

Chestnut  grows  especially  in  the  eastern 
states.  It  is  reddish  brown  in  color  and  straight 
in  grain.    The  wood  is  light  in  weight,  medium 

154 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
Strong,  medium  elastic,  and  medium  hard.  It 
is  used  for  interior  finish,  fence  posts  and  railway 
ties. 

Poplar  grows  especially  in  eastern  states.  It 
is  called  yellow  poplar,  white  wood,  or  tulip 
tree,  and  does  not  belong  to  the  poplar  family 
proper.  The  wood  is  a  greenish  or  yellowish 
brown  in  color  and  straight  in  grain.  It  is  light, 
medium  strong,  elastic  and  soft.  This  wood  is 
used  for  general  framing,  furniture,  interior 
finish,  vehicles  and  pumps.  Incidentally  it  is 
now  being  substituted  for  white  pine  which  is 
very  expensive. 

Willow  or  black  willow  grows  in  wet  places 
throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 
In  color  it  is  light  reddish  brown.  The  wood  is 
light  in  weight,  weak,  very  brittle  and  soft. 
It  is  used  for  weather  boarding,  water  wheels 
and  baskets.     It  is  also  used  to  make  charcoal. 

Basswood  or  linden  grows  in  the  east  central 
states.  In  color  it  is  very  light  brown  to  cream. 
The  wood  is  light  in  weight,  weak,  medium 
elastic  and  soft.  It  is  used  for  picflure  moulding, 
paper  pulp  and  woodenware. 

Of  the  soft  woods  common  in  the  United 
States  and  used  for  strucflural  purposes  the 
following  are  described  in  the  approximate  order 
of  their  hardness: 

Red  cedar  grows  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  and  is  best  along  the  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  is  the  fragrant  red  cedar 
which  is  dull  red  in  color  except  the  sapwood 
which  is  white.  It  is  especially  fine  grained  and 
easily  worked.    This  wood  is  very  light  in  weight, 

I5S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

medium  strong,  brittle  and  medium  hard.  It  is 
used  for  linen  chests,  pencils  and  interior  finish. 

Port  Orford  cedar,  also  called  Lawson  cypress 
and  Oregon  cedar,  grows  on  the  coast  of  Oregon. 
It  is  pinkish  brown  in  color  and  straight  in  grain. 
The  wood  is  light  in  weight,  strong,  elastic  and 
soft.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish,  shipbuilding 
and  very  extensively  for  matches. 

Western  red  cedar  grows  on  the  coast  of 
Washington.  It  is  dull  brown  or  red  in  color, 
and  is  coarse  and  straight  in  grain.  It  is  very 
light  in  weight,  medium  strong,  elastic  and  soft. 
This  wood  is  used  for  interior  finish,  cabinet- 
work and  shingles. 

White  cedar  grows  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
in  swampy  ground.  It  is  pink  to  brown  in  color 
and  is  straight  in  grain.  The  wood  is  very  light 
in  weight,  weak,  brittle  and  soft.  It  is  used 
for  shingles,  posts,  railway  ties,  cooperage  and 
boats. 

Yellow  pine  grows  in  various  places  throughout 
the  country.  On  the  south  Atlantic  Coast  long- 
leaf  pine  is  common  and  back  from  the  coast 
short-leaf  pine  is  very  abundant.  Pitch  pine 
grows  in  the  eastern  states.  Loblolly  pine  grows 
in  the  same  regions  as  the  Georgia  or  long-leaf 
pine.  Slash  pine  grows  in  Mississippi,  Alabama 
and  Florida.  Norway  pine  grows  in  Wisconsin, 
Michigan  and  Minnesota.  Western  yellow  pine 
grows  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.  All  of  these  pines  are  yellow, 
orange  and  red  in  color,  and  straight  in  grain. 
They  are  rather  heavy,  strong,  elastic  and 
medium  hard.    They  are  used  for  heavy  fram- 

is6 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

ing,  shipbuilding,  railway  ties,  interior  finish  and 
flooring. 

Douglas  fir,  also  called  Oregon  pine,  red  fir 
and  Douglas  spruce,  grows  in  the  far  western 
states.  It  is  yellow  to  light  red  in  color  and  very 
straight  and  coarse  in  grain.  The  wood  is  me- 
dium in  weight,  strong,  very  elastic,  and  medium 
hard.  It  is  used  for  heavy  construcftion  and 
interior  finish,  being  the  best  general  purpose 
wood  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Spruce,  like  hard  pine,  is  of  many  varieties. 
White  spruce  grows  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States.  Red  spruce  grows  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  the  East.  Black  spruce  grows 
in  the  northeastern  states.  Engelmann's  spruce 
grows  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Tide-land  or 
Sitka  spruce  grows  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
wood  is  light  in  color  and  straight  in  grain.  It 
is  light  in  weight,  medium  strong,  elastic  and 
soft.  The  various  species  of  this  wood  are  used 
for  general  construcftive  purposes. 

Hemlock  grows  in  the  northeastern  states. 
The  wood  is  reddish  brown  in  color  and  crooked 
in  grain.  It  is  light  in  weight,  medium  strong, 
medium  elastic  and  soft.  This  wood  makes  a 
cheap  lumber  used  for  joists,  rafters  and  board 
walks. 

Western  or  black  hemlock  grows  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  especially  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  It 
is  light  brown  in  color,  and  straight  in  grain.  It 
is  light  in  weight,  strong,  elastic  and  rather  hard. 
This  wood  is  used  for  framing. 

White  pine  grows  chiefly  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes.    It  is  from  light  brown  to  cream  in 

157 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

color  and  very  straight  in  grain.  The  wood  is 
very  light  in  weight,  medium  strong,  medium 
elastic  and  soft.  It  is  used  for  doors,  window 
sash,  cabinetwork,  and  other  interior  finish. 
This  wood  is  especially  valuable  on  account  of 
its  fine  qualities,  being  easy  to  work  and  almost 
devoid  of  shrinkage  tendency.  It  is  becoming 
very  scarce  and  consequently  high  in  price. 

Western  white  pine  grows  in  Washington  and 
Idaho  at  great  elevations.  It  is  light  brown  or 
red  in  color  and  straight  in  grain.  This  wood 
is  very  light  in  weight,  medium  strong,  elastic 
and  soft.  It  is  used  for  interior  finish  and  fram- 
ing. Western  white  pine  resembles  the  eastern 
white  pine  but  lacks  the  finer  qualities. 

Sugar  pine  grows  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains. It  is  pradlically  the  same  as  western 
white  pine. 

Redwood  (Sequoia)  grows  in  California  and 
southern  Oregon.  It  is  red  in  color  and  straight 
in  grain.  The  wood  is  light  in  weight,  weak, 
brittle  and  soft.  It  is  used  for  almost  everything 
in  California  and  has  the  peculiar  quality  of 
burning  with  great  difficulty.  Also  it  does  not 
shrink,  warp  or  rot  easily.  One  species  of  the 
redwood  is  the  "Big  Tree,"  occurring  in  ten 
groves  in  southern  California. 

Of  the  imported  woods  used  for  finish  and 
furniture  the  most  important  are  mahogany, 
Circassian  walnut,  French  burl,  satinwood,  ebony 
and  rosewood. 

Mahogany  comes  from  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America  and  West  Africa.  It  is  red  in 
color  and  turns  dark  red  with  age.     The  grain 

158 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
is  crooked.  This  wood  is  harder  than  hickory 
or  oak.  Usually  mahogany  is  used  as  a  veneer 
over  a  pine  core  and  the  pieces  are  selecfted  with 
great  care  to  match.  There  is  also  a  white  ma- 
hogany imported  from  the  west  coast  of  Mexico 
used  for  finish  and  furniture.  It  is  creamy  white 
in  color.  In  the  Florida  Keys  of  the  United 
States  mahogany  is  a  native  tree.  A  Philip- 
pine mahogany  also  is  now  being  brought  to  our 
eastern  markets. 

Circassian  walnut  comes  from  the  region  of  the 
Black  Sea.  It  is  a  rich  brown  in  color  and  very 
crooked  in  grain.  In  veneered  work  the  pieces 
are  matched  similarly  to  marble  slabs,  often 
forming  a  fantastic  design.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  elegant  and  costly  wood  in  general  use  for 
finishing  the  interiors  of  expensive  rooms. 

French  burl  comes  from  Persia.  It  is  a  walnut 
with  a  burl  or  knot  that  forms  on  the  tree  when 
young.  The  wood  is  dark  in  color  and  curly  in 
grain. 

Satinwood  comes  from  the  West  Indies.  It 
is  light  in  color  and  satiny  in  lustre,  also  finely 
mottled  in  grain.  The  wood  is  used  for  veneer- 
ing small  surfaces. 

Rosewood  comes  from  Brazil,  Jamaica  and 
Honduras.  It  is  a  dark  red  wood  with  black 
lines  through  it,  used  both  as  a  solid  material 
and  as  a  veneer.  On  account  of  its  resinous 
nature  it  is  difficult  to  work. 

Ebony  grows  in  India  and  Ceylon,  also  in  the 
West  Indies.  In  the  far  east  logs  are  several 
feet  in  diameter,  while  in  the  Indies  the  trunks 
are  rarely  over  four  inches.     Only  the  heart- 

159 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

wood  of  the  large  trees  is  black.  The  wood  Is 
very  hard  and  will  take  a  high  polish.  It  is 
used  for  cabinetwork,  inlaying  and  for  various 
turned  and  carved  articles. 

Steel  and  Iron. — Steel  and  iron  are  used  very 
extensively  in  building,  but  very  moderately  in 
house  construcftion.  Steel  is  made  from  iron, 
and  possesses  the  property  of  taking  a  temper. 
In  some  steels  in  which  the  carbon  content  is 
low,  tempering  is  not  in  evidence.  Iron  for 
building  materials  is  either  cast  or  wrought. 
By  cast  iron  is  meant  iron  which  has  been  heated 
to  a  molten  state  and  poured  into  moulds, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  congeal,  thereby  forming 
strucflural  members  such  as  posts.  By  wrought 
iron  is  meant  iron  that  has  been  hammered  or 
rolled  into  shape.  The  chief  building  materials 
made  of  steel  and  iron  are  classified  under  the 
head  of  builders'  hardware,  which  may  be  either 
common  or  finish  hardware.  Articles  included 
under  the  head  of  common  hardware  are  cast- 
iron  posts  and  plates,  steel  I-beams,  angles, 
channels,  etc.,  and  joist  hangers,  bolts,  nails, 
strap  hinges  and  screws.  Hardware  used  in 
the  finish  of  rooms  (e.  g.,  door  knobs,  drawer 
pulls,  etc.)  is  called  finishing  hardware. 

Sheet  metal  is  used  extensively  in  construc- 
tion. However,  it  is  not  always  of  iron  or  steel, 
but  may  be  of  tin,  copper  or  zinc.  Perhaps 
galvanized  iron  in  sheets  is  the  most  serviceable 
of  these  materials.  Gutters,  down-spouts  and 
flashing  are  made  of  sheet  metal. 

Sheathing  Paper  and  Deadening  Quilts. — A 
very  useful  building  material  is  paper  used  to 

i6o 


COMMON  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
protecft  a  frame  building  from  penetrating  winds. 
Building  paper  is  a  paper  saturated  with  tar, 
resin  or  other  waterproof  material,  and  is  applied 
to  the  sheathing  or  rough  boarding  of  the  house, 
both  on  the  walls  and  on  the  roof,  over  which 
shingles  or  weather  boards  are  nailed.  Deaden- 
ing quilt  is  made  in  a  number  of  ways,  usually 
consisting  of  two  layers  of  paper  between  which 
has  been  stitched  a  material  of  straw,  hair  or 
seaweed,  and  is  used  under  floors  and  in  walls 
to  deaden  sounds  and  stop  leakage  of  cold  or 
warm  air. 

Many  other  materials  of  various  kinds  are  in 
the  market;  some  are  fire- resisting  materials, 
such  as  asbestos;  some  are  damp-resisting  ma- 
terials, and  some  are  insulating  materials. 

An  exceptionally  good  insulating  material  is 
mineral  wool.  It  is  used  between  joists,  studs, 
and  rafters  of  frame  buildings.  By  filling  the 
space  between  the  rafters  with  this  material  attic 
rooms  may  be  made  much  warmer  in  winter  and 
cooler  in  summer. 


i6i 


Si^ETCH  Problems 

(i)  Make  a  sketch  of  an  ashlar  wall  in  which  the  stones 
are  laid  up  in  regular  plumb  bond  but  with  two  sizes  of 
stones.  Indicate  that  the  face  of  all  stones  is  bushham- 
mered  with  margin. 

(2)  Design  a  simple  brick  diaper  pattern  to  be  used  as  a 
frieze  below  the  main  cornice  of  a  brick  house  of  modern 
English  type. 

(3)  Make  a  diagram  showing  method  of  quarter  sawing 
a  log. 

References 

Kidder. — Building  Constru(ftion  and  Superintendence. 
Parts  I  and  II. 

Merrill. — Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration. 

Benson. — Industrial  Chemistry  for  Engineering  Stu- 
dents. 

Eckel. — Building  Stones  and  Clays. 

Noyes. — Wood  and  Forest. 

Kellogg. — Lumber  and  its  Uses. 


163 


CHAPTER  VIII.    FINISH  BUILDING  MA- 
TERIALS 

SCOPE. — Many  building  materials  are  used 
not  only  as  common  but  also  as  finish 
materials.  Marble  is  used  for  wainscot- 
ings,  floors,  mantels  and  other  interior 
features.  Brick  is  used  in  the  interior  as  is 
tile  and  terra  cotta.  Wood  is  used  extensively 
in  all  parts  of  the  building.  Plaster  is  used 
both  on  the  exterior  and  interior,  more  exten- 
sively on  the  interior.  Paints  and  stains  are 
used  on  all  parts  of  the  house,  as  is  glass,  which 
acflually  becomes  a  part  of  the  wall.  Hard- 
ware is  also  essential.  All  these  materials  are 
considered  to  be  finish  building  materials,  when 
used  on  the  inside. 

In  regard  to  heating,  plumbing  and  lighting 
fixtures,  they  are  parts  of  specially  installed 
appliances  for  certain  purposes  rather  than 
finish  materials. 

Materials  used  to  make  Plaster,  Mortar  and 
Concrete. — The  chief  materials  used  to  make 
lime  and  cement  plaster  are  common  lime, 
Portland  cement,  sand,  and  water.  Other  ma- 
terials are  also  used  in  pracftice. 

Common  lime,  or  so-called  quicklime  is  made 
by  the  calcination  of  limestone.  The  operation 
is  performed  by  means  of  kilns  of  various  types, 
depending  upon  the  locality  where  the  limestone 
is  quarried.  Calcination  consists  in  the  decom- 
position of  the  calcium  carbonate  of  the  lime- 
stone into  calcium  oxide  (quicklime)  and  carbon 
dioxide  gas.  The  latter  is  expelled  along  with  any 
moisture  which  may  be  present. 

163 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Lime  to  be  of  good  quality  should  be  free  from 
cinders  and  other  impurities.  It  should  also  be 
in  lumps  rather  than  in  dust  and  should  slake 
readily  in  water.  Slaking  lime  consists  of  the 
chemical  union  of  calcium  oxide  and  water  to 
form  calcium  hydroxide.  When  the  mixture  of 
slaked  lime  and  water  is  further  mixed  with 
sand,  mortar  is  made  which  when  dry  becomes 
very  hard.  The  main  chemical  process  in  the 
hardening  of  lime  mortar  is  its  absorption  from 
the  air  of  carbonic  acid,  the  same  material  which 
was  driven  off  in  the  calcination  process  by  means 
of  heat.  Therefore  the  substance  of  cement 
mortar  is  similar  to  the  original  limestone  from 
which  the  lime  was  derived.  Lime  already  hy- 
drated  by  manufacfturers  may  be  purchased, 
thereby  saving  the  trouble  and  expense  of  slaking 
lime  on  the  building  site.  Such  lime  is  usually 
more  pure  than  ordinary  unslaked  lime. 

The  cement  used  in  ordinary  cement  plaster 
and  concrete  work  is  Portland  cement.  Port- 
land cement  is  produced  by  burning  a  natural 
or  artificial  rock  mixture  containing  approxi- 
mately three  parts  of  lime  carbonate  and  one 
part  of  silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide,  the  clinkers 
resulting  being  pulverized  into  a  powder  or  dust 
which  is  the  cement.  The  finished  producfl  con- 
sists of  about  two  parts  of  lime  and  one  part  of 
silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxide.  Cement  mortar 
and  concrete  will  set  either  in  the  air  or  under 
water.  Lime  mortar  will  set  only  when  exposed 
to  the  air. 

Sand  of  the  best  quality  for  plastering  work 
must  be  sharp  and  clean;  that  is,  each  grain 

164 


FINISH  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
must  be  angular  and  free  from  foreign  substances 
such  as  silt.  River  sand  and  sea  sand  are  used  in 
plastering  when  sharp,  excavated  sand  is  not 
available.  The  color  of  sand  is  of  some  impor- 
tance, white  being  the  best.  In  concrete  work, 
clean  gravel,  every  stone  of  which  will  pass 
through  an  inch  ring,  or  crushed  rock  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  size,  is  used.  In  pebble 
dash  plaster  work  very  small  pebbles  of  the  re- 
quired color  are  used. 

Finish  Woods. — Woods  are  prepared  for  use 
In  finishing  work  by  seledling  pieces  and  sawing 
them  into  stock  sizes  and  shapes.  By  using  this 
stock  material  for  baseboards,  chair  rails,  pidture 
moulds,  and  trim  in  general,  quite  a  saving  is 
accomplished.  In  the  better  class  of  work, 
where  more  individuality  and  characfter  in  the 
design  of  the  interior  woodwork  is  desired,  the 
various  pieces  of  wood  used  should  be  made  to 
order  according  to  drawings.  However,  even 
in  the  making  of  these  special  pieces,  certain 
stock  sizes  of  material  may  be  used  from  which 
to  cut  the  member  desired.  The  wood  trim  of  a 
room  may  be  of  pradtically  any  wood,  depending 
upon  circumstances,  but  the  hard  woods  are 
usually  employed.  When  cheap  woods  are  used, 
it  does  not  pay  to  attempt  to  preserve  the  finish- 
ing qualities  of  the  wood,  as  grain  and  color, 
because  all  surfaces  are  better  covered  over  with 
paint,  enamel  or  stain. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  interior 
wood  finish  is  the  floor.  Flooring  is  made  in 
strips  from  three-eighths  to  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick,  one  edge  having  a  tongue  and  the 

165 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Other  edge  a  groove,  so  that  the  boards  may 
fit  together  very  closely.  The  best  flooring  is 
made  of  quarter-sawed  oak,  and  should  be  in 
narrow,  thin  strips,  on  account  of  the  tendency 
of  oak  to  warp  and  swell.  For  dance  halls, 
billiard  rooms,  and  quite  often  for  ordinary 
rooms  in  the  house,  maple  flooring  is  very  satis- 
fadlory,  on  account  of  its  durability  and  its 
whiteness.  Common  floors  are  made  of  yellow 
pine,  spruce,  birch,  white  pine  and  fir,  which  in 
all  cases  should  be  edge-grained  or  quarter- 
sawed.  Flooring  is  held  in  place  by  means  of 
secret  nailing;  that  is,  nails  are  driven  through 
the  tongue  of  the  board  and  the  next  strip  of 
flooring  fitted  on  over  the  tongue  so  as  to  con- 
ceal the  nail  head. 

Only  high-class,  kiln-dried  finishing  lumber 
should  be  used  for  interior  woodwork,  including 
doors,  windows,  shutters,  wainscotings,  bases, 
chair  rails,  pi(5lure  mouldings,  panels,  wooden 
beams,  cornices,  columns,  stairs,  posts,  railings 
and  built-in  fixtures. 

Finish  Hardware. — Finish  hardware  includes 
door  knobs,  escutcheons,  locks,  butts,  hinges, 
window  fasteners,  and  all  such  articles  of  metal 
used  in  finishing  the  interior  of  a  house.  In 
common  pracftice  this  hardware  is  selected  from 
stock  rather  than  made  to  order.  A  large  num- 
ber of  patterns  are  manufacflured,  from  which 
an  appropriate  set  of  finish  hardware  may  be 
seledled.  The  mechanism  of  locks  and  equally 
important  parts  should  be  construcfted  of  wrought 
steel,  and  should  be  of  such  quality  as  will  give 
permanent   wear  and   satisfacftion.     In    buying 

i66 


FINISH  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
hardware  it  is  necessary  to  depend  upon  the 
dealer  or  the  manufadturer  for  the  quaHty  of  the 
goods,  since  it  is  impossible  for  the  average  builder 
to  definitely  determine  whether  or  not  hardware 
is  of  the  best  material  and  workmanship.  For  in- 
stance, articles  of  iron,  such  as  andirons,  may  be 
of  cast  steel  with  small  pits  upon  the  surface. 
The  whole  may  be  plated  over  with  a  coat  of 
brass,  giving  the  appearance  of  hand-hammered 
brass,  which  would  be  very  expensive.  As  a 
matter  of  truth,  such  andirons  are  cheap,  but 
really  make  a  good  appearance.  Hardware 
which  is  heavy  may  usually  be  assumed  to  be  of 
reliable  material,  so  that  a  very  good  test  of 
hardware  is  the  weight.  Manufacflurers  have  so 
many  secret  and  patented  methods  that  it  is 
not  worth  while  for  the  layman  to  endeavor  to 
learn  all  of  the  processes. 

The  metals  chiefly  used  for  finish  hardware 
are  iron,  brass  and  bronze.  Occasionally  glass, 
porcelain  and  wood  are  used  for  certain  parts. 
Metals  may  be  wrought,  cast  or  pressed  into 
shape  from  sheets.  Iron  is  finished  by  simply 
cleaning  it  with  a  file  or  brush,  by  covering  the 
surface  with  a  black  varnish  called  Japan  finish, 
by  heating  and  dipping  it  into  a  composition 
of  oil  and  an  alloy  of  copper  or  bronze  called 
lacquer  finish,  and  by  eledlroplating  with  nickel. 
Still  another  finish  for  iron  is  called  Bower-Barf, 
in  which  the  surface  is  changed  into  magnetic 
oxide  or  iron,  black  in  color  and  proof  against 
rust.  This  finish  is  not  expensive,  and  is  a  very 
serviceable  kind  of  hardware. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  of  a  bright 

167 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

yellow  color,  and  capable  of  a  very  high  polish. 
However,  brass  tarnishes  very  easily,  and  is 
ordinarily  protecfled  by  a  coat  of  shellac.  Brass 
may  be  wrought,  cast  or  plated.  Cast  brass  is 
the  best  for  general  purposes. 

Bronze  is  a  composition  of  copper  and  tin, 
and  is  a  very  useful  metal  for  casting  delicate 
patterns.  The  finishes  for  solid  or  plated  bronze 
hardware  vary  to  a  great  extent  in  appearance, 
and  also  in  cost.  The  colors  may  be  light,  dark 
or  spotted. 

Glass  is  used  only  for  door  knobs  and  drawer 
pulls,  usually  in  connecftion  with  white  or  light 
colored  woodwork.  Porcelain  and  wood  are 
used  in  the  same  way. 

Paint,  Enamel,  Varnish  and  Stain. — Paint  is 
a  prepared  liquid  applied  to  materials  for  the 
prote<flion  or  ornamentation  of  them.  Paint 
commonly  consists  of  linseed  oil,  either  raw  or 
boiled,  called  a  vehicle;  a  metallic  oxide,  such  as 
white  lead  or  zinc  oxide,  called  a  base;  and  tur- 
pentine or  alcohol,  called  a  solvent.  Thus  any 
ordinary  paint  contains  a  vehicle,  a  base  and  a 
solvent  with  usually  some  other  material  to 
cause  the  paint  to  dry  readily  called  a  dryer, 
and  coloring  matter,  called  pigment.  Paints 
vary  in  composition  according  to  the  use  for 
which  they  are  made,  some  paints  being  for 
exterior  work  on  wood,  some  for  interior  work  on 
wood,  and  some  for  covering  metal  surfaces. 
For  the  latter  a  base  of  red  lead  is  commonly 
used.  Enamel  is  a  paint  in  which  varnish  has 
been  used  as  a  vehicle.  It  is  usually  applied 
over  common  paint  which  has  been  rubbed  with 

i68 


FINISH  BUILDING  MATERIALS 
sandpaper,  or  over  a  flat  interior  paint  which 
already  has  a  dull  surface.  Enamel  may  be 
either  of  a  dull  or  glossy  finish.  It  is  usually 
prepared  by  a  manufacflurer  and  sold  ready  for 
application.  Enamel  is  made  thin  by  the  use  of 
alcohol. 

Varnish  consists  either  of  a  resin  dissolved  in 
a  volatile  oil,  or  of  a  resin  mixed  with  linseed  oil 
and  dissolved  by  the  use  of  turpentine  or  benzine. 
Shellac  is  a  type  of  the  former,  while  oil  var- 
nish is  a  type  of  the  latter.  The  gums  used  in 
varnishes  are  of  a  great  many  kinds,  includ- 
ing amber,  mastic,  and  lac.  In  the  application  of 
varnish,  the  wood  is  cleaned  and  a  coat  of  paste 
rubbed  into  the  grain  with  a  stiff  brush,  after 
which  the  surface  is  rubbed  with  burlap  and  the 
varnish  put  on  with  a  brush.  Whenever  dry, 
other  coats  may  be  applied,  usually,  however,  not 
until  the  previous  coat  has  been  rubbed  to  a  dull 
finish  with  sandpaper  or  mineral  wool.  Flat 
tones  are  acquired  by  rubbing  the  surface  with 
pumice  stone  and  water. 

Wood  stains  consist  chiefly  of  alcohol  and 
coloring  matter.  Many  of  them  are  patented. 
They  are  applied  to  the  clean  surface  of  wood, 
and  rubbed  dry  with  burlap  or  a  flannel  cloth. 
On  top  of  wood  stain  it  is  necessary  only  to  apply 
a  coat  of  shellac  or  a  coat  of  wax.  Wood  dyes 
may  be  obtained  in  pradlically  any  color  and 
shade,  most  of  which  are  reliable  for  interior 
work.  However,  there  is  a  tendency  for  some 
colors  to  fade  in  the  bright  light. 

Tile,  Brick  and  Terra  Cotta  for  Facing. — 
Tiles  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  designs  and 

169 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

colors  for  use  in  floors,  hearths,  wainscotings, 
walls  and  other  facings.  They  are  made  simi- 
larly to  other  clay  producfls,  but  almost  inva- 
riably have  a  glazed  surface.  Usually  dull  sur- 
faces are  more  pleasing.  Quite  often  the  design 
of  a  tile  is  worked  out  in  a  number  of  colors. 
Perhaps  the  best  tile  work  is  in  fireplaces,  where 
tiles  of  individual  charadler,  probably  made  by 
hand,  are  incorporated  in  the  design  of  the  fix- 
ture. Floor  tiles  are  sometimes  a  foot  square, 
and  sometimes  very  small  indeed.  They  may  be 
oblong,  hexagonal  or  ocflagonal  in  shape  or  even 
irregular,  but  must  be  laid  to  fit  closely,  joints 
being  filled  with  cement  plaster.  Wall  tile  are 
usually  rather  small,  and  require  a  substantial 
backing. 

Brick  and  terra  cotta  are  of  finer  texture  and 
design  for  interior  work  in  order  to  produce 
pleasing  eflfedls.  Bricks  employed  in  fireplace 
constru(5lion  may  be  laid  up  in  pracftically  any 
pattern,  while  terra  cotta  is  usually  made  ac- 
cording to  a  certain  design  to  suit  the  case  in 
hand.  In  the  use  of  tile,  brick  and  terra  cotta 
for  interior  work,  it  is  very  necessary  that  the 
selecftion  be  carefully  made  in  order  to  avoid 
introducing  a  character  or  eflFedl  foreign  to  the 
environment.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  stone 
is  also  used  for  interior  work.  Many  rustic  or 
bungalow  fireplaces  are  constru(5led  of  field  stone 
or  rubble. 

Glass. — Glass  as  used  for  clear  window  panes 
is  of  two  kinds,  plate  and  cylindrical  or  sheet 
glass,  each  having  many  grades.  Plate  glass  is 
made   by   pouring   the   molten   glass   on    large 

170 


FINISH  BUILDING  MATERIALS 

tables,  and  rolling  the  mass  to  a  smooth  and 
even  surface,  after  which  it  is  thoroughly  pol- 
ished. Plate  glass  is  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  may  be  obtained  in  very  large 
pieces,  either  flat  or  curved.  On  account  of  the 
great  amount  of  breakage  in  the  manufacfture 
of  plate  glass,  and  on  account  of  numerous  de- 
fe(5ts  which  cause  the  glass  to  be  recast,  the  price 
is  high. 

Since  small  pieces  of  plate  glass  are  more 
easily  obtained  than  large  pieces,  the  cost  of 
small  pieces  per  square  foot  of  area  is  very  much 
less  than  that  of  large  pieces  of  the  same  kind  of 
glass.  Plate  glass,  when  properly  manufacflured, 
is  absolutely  clear  and  devoid  of  defedls.  It 
should  be  used  in  all  buildings  which  have  a 
general  quality  sufficient  to  warrant  the  expense. 

Sheet  or  cylindrical  glass  is  made  by  blowing 
the  hot  mass  into  cylinders  which  while  still  hot 
are  cut  and  laid  out  flat.  This  glass  always  has 
defedts  such  as  air  bubbles,  and  waves.  It  is 
made  in  a  number  of  qualities,  the  best  being 
called  AA  double  strength,  and  the  cheapest 
being  called  B  single  strength.  Sheet  glass  set 
in  window  sash  and  doors  may  be  secured  at  any 
planing  mill.  These  are  called  regular  stock,  and 
are  of  only  mediocre  quality.  The  design  of 
such  a  sash  or  door  lacks  characfler,  making  the 
article  itself  unsuited  for  high-class  residence 
work. 

Leaded  glass  is  made  for  the  most  part  by 
experts  who  fit  together  small  pieces  of  glass  and 
secure  them  at  the  edges  by  means  of  lead 
strips  with  flanges.    The  design  of  leaded  glass 

171 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

may  be  very  elaborate  in  every  fespedl,  or  may 
be  quite  simple.  Examples  of  very  wonderful 
leaded  art  glass  may  be  seen  in  the  cathedrals  of 
Europe,  and,  of  more  recent  construcftion,  in 
some  of  the  residences  and  churches  of  America. 
Most  of  the  art  glass  is  leaded  glass,  although 
certain  eflPecfts  using  colored  glass  have  been 
attained  by  other  means. 

Translucent  glass  is  quite  often  desirable  where 
transparency  is  obje(5lionable;  thus  white  glass 
is  used  in  doors  and  windows  to  quite  a  degree. 
White  glass  is  called  "crystal,"  "crimped,"  and 
other  names  in  the  trade.  A  fireproof  glass  has 
been  invented  which  will  not  break  under  ex- 
treme heat,  being  cast  with  a  network  of  fine 
wire  throughout  its  length  and  breadth.  This 
glass  is  called  wire  glass,  and  is  used  in  places 
which  may  at  some  time  be  subjedled  to  intense 
heat  caused  by  a  nearby  conflagration.  Prism 
glass  is  a  unique  kind  of  glass  in  which  the  sur- 
face has  been  ground  into  a  large  number  of 
prisms  of  one  shape  or  another,  which  tend  to 
colle(5t  light  and  distribute  it  at  a  certain  place 
in  the  interior  according  to  the  conditions  in- 
volved. Prism  glass  is  made  from  plate  glass, 
and  after  being  ground  is  highly  polished.  It 
is  used  in  the  upper  part  of  store  fronts  and 
elsewhere  to  throw  light  into  remote  parts. 


172 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Show  by  a  diagram  the  form  of  a  piece  of  oak  floor- 
ing and  how  it  is  held  in  place  over  a  common  floor. 

(2)  Show  by  sketches  a  pattern  for  a  tile  floor  in  a  bath, 
a  pattern  for  a  tile  wainscot  in  a  reception  hall  and  a 
pattern  for  a  tile  hearth  before  an  open  fireplace. 

(3)  Design  a  leaded  glass  window  to  be  used  as  one  of  a 
series  of  five  in  the  dining  room  of  a  typical  bungalow. 
The  sash  is  hinged  at  the  side  and  is  24"  x  52"  inside  the 
frame.    Make  drawing  at  the  scale  of  i^"=i'-o". 

References 

Kidder. — Building  Constru(5tion  and  Superintendence. 
Parts  I   and   II. 

Noyes. — Wood  and  Forest. 
Kellogg. — Lumber  and  its  Uses. 


173 


CHAPTER  IX.  HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

KINDS. — In  general  terms,  buildings  are 
said  to  be  either  of  masonry  or  car- 
pentry construdlion.  However,  in  prac- 
tically all  cases,  both  masonry  and 
carpentry  construcftion  are  employed.  To  the 
casual  observer,  a  building  that  has  walls  of" 
brick,  stone  or  terra  cotta,  and  sometimes  of 
plaster,  is  a  building  of  masonry,  and  the  build- 
ing that  has  walls  of  shingles,  siding  or  other 
wood  material  is  a  building  of  carpentry,  or  a 
frame  building.  Houses  constru(fted  of  masonry, 
especially  brick  and  stone,  are  more  durable 
than  frame  buildings,  but  of  course  cost  con- 
siderably more.  The  chief  condition  against 
which  it  is  well  to  guard  in  the  erecflion  of  a  brick 
building  is  dampness.  To  avoid  this  condition, 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  inside  plastered  sur- 
face away  from  the  structural  wall  of  the  build- 
ing by  nailing  the  lathe  to  furring  strips  which 
are  securely  fastened  to  the  brick  wall  itself. 
Furring  strips  are  held  to  the  brick  wall  by  driv- 
ing nails  into  the  mortar  between  bricks,  or  into 
wooden  bricks  set  into  the  wall  for  the  purpose. 
A  type  of  house  used  to  some  extent  in  the  more 
severe  regions  of  the  United  States  is  the  brick 
veneer  house,  which  is  constru(fted  almost 
exactly  like  a  frame  house,  but  is  enclosed  with 
a  four-inch  brick  wall,  giving  the  appearance  of  a 
brick  house.  This  type  of  building  is  very  com- 
fortable in  all  seasons  of  the  year  on  account 
of  its  insulating  characfler.  Still  another  type 
of  masonry  building  is  the  one  constru(fted  of 
hollow  bricks  or  hollow  tile  for  outside  walls. 

174 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Here,  since  the  hollow  materials  provide  an  air 
space  within  the  wall,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
furr  out  for  lathe  and  plaster,  the  plaster  being 
applied  direcflly  to  the  inside  wall  surface.  The 
exterior  of  many  such  buildings  is  also  plastered 
with  a  cement  mixture. 

Houses  of  frame  construcftion  are  erecfted  ac- 
cording to  two  chief  methods.  One  is  called 
balloon  framing,  and  the  other  is  called  braced  or 
full  framing,  which  is  the  old-fashioned  method. 
In  the  latter  method,  all  timbers,  includ- 
ing sills,  posts,  girders,  and  plates  are  made  of 
heavy  timbers,  and  are  mortised  and  pinned 
together,  making  a  very  substantial  frame. 
Some  of  the  old  houses  built  of  white  oak, 
following  this  method,  are  almost  indestruc- 
tible. At  the  present  time  the  balloon  frame 
is  very  common.  The  parts  are  spiked  together 
and  braced,  but  no  members  are  mortised  and 
tenoned.  A  combination  of  the  two  types  of 
framing  is  not  only  economical  but  very  durable. 
In  it  the  sills,  posts,  girders  and  braces  are 
mortised  and  pinned,  but  the  common  studding 
is  only  notched  and  spiked,  as  are  the  rafters. 

Method  of  Procedure. — In  the  eredlion  of  a 
building,  plans  and  specifications  consisting 
of  accurate  drawings  of  all  parts  and  a  descrip- 
tion thereof  are  followed  in  every  respecft.  In 
most  cases  drawings  and  specifications  are  pre- 
pared by  an  architecft,  but  sometimes  by  a 
contractor,  builder  or  carpenter.  Occasionally 
a  house  is  erecfted  without  preliminary  design, 
or  perhaps  with  only  a  mental  pi(5ture  of  the 
house   as   it   is   to  be.     Undoubtedly  the  best 

175 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

results  are  obtained  when  fully  developed  draw- 
ings and  specifications  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
builder.  A  specification  describes  the  work 
indicated  on  the  drawings  in  the  order  in  which 
the  various  operations  will  require  attention. 
First  comes  the  staking  out  of  the  building,  then 
excavation,  grading  and  drainage,  masonry 
work,  wood  framing,  outside  finish,  lathing  and 
plastering,  inside  finish,  painting  and  glazing, 
installation  of  hardware,  and  house  decoration. 
Meanwhile,  after  the  building  has  been  enclosed 
the  heating  and  ventilation,  lighting  and  plumb- 
ing are  installed,  with  the  exception  of  the  fix- 
tures, which  are  put  in  at  about  the  same  time 
as  the  finish  hardware. 

Staking  out  the  Building. — ^After  the  placing 
of  the  building  on  the  lot  has  been  definitely 
determined,  the  exa(5l  location  of  each  corner 
is  indicated  by  driving  small  stakes  into  the 
ground  with  a  nail  driven  into  the  top  of  each 
stake  marking  the  intersecftion  of  the  building 
lines.  Outside  of  the  stakes,  perhaps  six  feet 
on  each  side,  batter  boards  are  set  up  on  low 
stakes,  and  the  acftual  lines  marking  the  building 
lines  are  extended  to  the  board  and  fastened 
permanently  so  that  when  the  stakes  at  the 
corners  of  the  building  are  removed  with  the 
excavation  of  earth,  the  lines  of  the  building 
will  still  be  in  evidence,  from  which  the  founda- 
tion walls  will  be  accurately  construcfted.  Thus 
the  batter  boards  are  safe  out  of  the  way  of 
excavated  earth,  and  the  strings  or  lines  fast- 
ened to  them  mark  the  exa(5l  location  of  the 
building    until    the    foundation    is    completed. 

176 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

From  that  time  the  foundation  itself  is  sufficient 
guide  for  the  superstrucfture.  In  order  to  have 
the  first  floor  level  at  the  proper  and  premedi- 
tated height,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  a  bench 
mark  or  known  grade  relative  to  the  street 
grade.  In  this  way  the  first  floor  level  may  be 
made  the  exacft  number  of  feet  and  inches 
required  above  the  elevation  of  the  sidewalk. 

Excavation  and  Grading. — In  excavation,  the 
earth  should  be  removed  only  as  far  down  as 
the  under  side  of  the  basement  floor,  and  a  foot 
or  two  outside  of  the  foundation  wall.  During 
excavation,  usually  done  with  scrapers,  it  is 
more  economical  to  distribute  the  excavated 
earth  upon  the  site  or  elsewhere,  in  such  places 
as  it  is  to  occupy  permanently;  otherwise  a  re- 
handling  of  all  excavated  earth  is  necessary, 
which  is  an  additional  expense.  Moreover,  by 
this  method  of  handling  of  excavated  earth  in 
one  operation,  inconvenient  mounds  of  earth 
around  the  building  are  avoided.  In  excavation, 
the  top  of  the  soil  should  be  preserved  to  be 
later  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  yard 
to  provide  a  fertile  soil  for  the  growth  of  grass, 
shrubs  and  plants,  at  which  time  the  grading, 
levelling  and  smoothing  down  of  the  soil  will 
also  be  taken  care  of.    (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  I.) 

Masonry. — ^At  this  time  it  is  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  condition  of  the  soil  on  which  the 
foundations  of  the  building  are  to  be  erecfled. 
A  solid  surface  of  clay,  gravel  or  rock  is  essential. 
Mud,  silt,  filled-in  soil  and  quicksand  are  not 
reliable,  so  that  in  case  a  better  building  sur- 
face is  required,  further  excavation,  the  driving 

177 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

of  wooden  piles  or  the  setting  of  concrete  piers 
may  be  necessary.  Sometimes  other  remedies 
for  such  conditions  are  employed.  Before  the 
foundation  wall  itself  is  put  in  place,  a  small 
trench  wherever  walls  are  to  occur  is  further 
excavated  below  the  earth  floor  of  the  building, 
in  which  will  be  placed  the  footing.  Footings 
are  of  brick,  stone  or  concrete,  and  for  houses 
are  ordinarily  sixteen  inches  wide,  eight  inches 
deep  and  as  long  as  is  the  wall  which  rests  on 
top.  Assuming  that  a  footing  is  to  be  of  con- 
crete, a  mixture  consisting  perhaps  of  one  part 
cement,  three  parts  sand  and  five  parts  gravel, 
properly  prepared,  is  poured  into  the  excavated 
trench  and  allowed  to  become  set  and  hard. 
In  most  excavations  the  walls  of  the  footing 
trench  will  maintain  themselves  sufficiently 
well  so  as  to  necessitate  no  further  walling  of  the 
trench  by  means  of  planks.  Upon  this  footing, 
after  a  few  days,  may  be  eredted  a  wooden 
form  in  which  a  concrete  mixture  of  the  same 
proportions  as  the  footings  is  to  be  poured, 
forming  a  solid  wall  perhaps  eight  inches  thick 
and  eight  feet  high.  When  this  concrete  is 
hard  the  plank  forms  are  removed  by  the  car- 
penter who  erecfled  them,  and  the  foundation 
wall  is  established.  Frames  for  doors  and  win- 
dows in  foundation  walls  should  have  been 
set  in  place  before  the  concrete  was  poured,  so 
that  they  would  be  securely  imbedded  in  the 
monolithic  mass.  At  this  stage  of  the  building 
operations,  the  rough  framing  may  be  com- 
menced, but  before  the  space  outside  of  the  base- 
ment wall  is  filled,  and  quite  often  even  before 

178 


Plate  42 
Details  Showing  Progression  of  Construction 


179 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  wall  itself  is  built,  it  is  important  to  lay  a 
four-inch  drain  tile  at  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion on  the  outside  of  the  wall  to  carry  off  seep- 
age water.  Tile  should  also  be  laid  where  neces- 
sary inside  of  the  basement  wall  and  conne(5ted 
with  the  main  drain  pipe,  to  prevent  the  future 
basement  floor  from  becoming  wet.  Also  before 
backfilling,  it  is  important  to  make  the  concrete 
wall  waterproof  either  with  a  coat  or  two  of  hot 
tar  put  on  with  a  mop,  or  with  a  coat  or  two  of 
waterproof  concrete  paint,  applied  with  a  brush. 
This  water-proofing  should  be  on  the  outside 
of  the  wall,  but  may  also  be  on  the  inside.  In 
the  better  class  of  work  the  first  three  or  four 
feet  of  backfilling  consists  of  cheap  gravel  or 
crushed  rock,  so  that  surface  water  will  have  a 
free  flow  to  the  drain  tile  which  is  to  carry  it 
away.  The  upper  part  of  the  backfilling  may 
be  the  earth  removed  by  excavation,  except  the 
top  soil.     (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  II.) 

Basement  floors  are  usually  constructed  of 
concrete  three  inches  thick,  but  with  a  wearing 
surface  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick  consisting 
of  one  part  of  cement  and  two  parts  of  sand. 
This  concrete  floor  is  laid  direcflly  upon  the  earth 
floor  at  the  upper  line  of  the  footings,  but  in  case 
a  fill  is  necessary  before  laying  this  floor,  gravel 
or  cinders  may  be  used.  Floor  drains  opening 
into  the  tile  drains  already  in  place  should  be 
provided  at  convenient  places,  according  to 
the  arrangement  of  the  future  basement  rooms. 

No  matter  what  type  of  building  is  to  be 
ere(5led,  all  of  the  masonry  work  is  construcfted 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  including  footings,  founda- 

180 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

tions,  walls,  chimneys,  ash  pits,  fireplaces,  and 
sometimes  porch  floors  and  other  floors,  and 
rarely  even  roofs.  Walls  of  masonry  are  usually 
eight,  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  thick,  depending 
upon  the  height  of  the  dwelling  and  the  material 
used.  Concrete  need  not  be  so  thick  as  brick 
and  stone  walls.  Quite  often  a  two-story  brick 
house  has  twelve-inch  walls  in  the  basement 
and  first  story,  and  eight-inch  walls  in  the  sec- 
ond story.  Frame  cottages  and  often  two-story 
houses  may  have  eight  inch  concrete  basement 
walls.  Small  brick  houses  may  have  eight-inch 
walls  throughout.  Usually  only  exterior  walls 
are  of  masonry.  In  chimney  constru(5lion  a 
substantial  footing  should  always  be  provided 
and  the  chimney  carried  from  basement  floor 
through  attic  space  in  as  straight  a  line  as  pos- 
sible. A  brick  chimney  should  never  be  brack- 
eted from  a  wall  in  the  first  story  and  carried 
through  the  roof,  because  the  weight  of  the 
chimney  itself  invariably  cracks  plaster  and  wall 
paper,  and  is,  moreover,  a  dangerous  strucfture. 
Chimneys,  and  in  facfl  all  brickwork  laid  up 
subjecfl  to  outside  weather  conditions,  should 
have  cement  mortar.  Brickwork  protecfled,  that 
is,  on  the  inside  of  the  building,  may  have 
lime  plaster.  Four-inch  brick  walls  are  used  to 
enclose  ash  pits  and  to  separate  flues.  Each 
fireplace,  heater  and  stove  in  the  building  should 
have  a  flue  of  its  own,  combined,  perhaps,  into 
one  chimney  or  stack.  Flues  should  be  lined 
either  with  terra  cotta  tile  or  a  smooth  coat  of 
cement  plaster.  Brick  and  tile  hearths  for  fire- 
places  should  be  supported  by  masonry  from 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

beneath  whenever  possible,  rather  than  sup- 
ported by  wood  floor  construcftion.  Second- 
story  fireplaces  should  be  supported  by  ma- 
sonry carried  the  full  width  through  the  first 
story.  Usually  it  is  not  possible  to  support  the 
hearth  of  a  second-story  fireplace  except  by 
means  of  the  wood  joists.  All  parts  of  the  build- 
ing including  porch  steps  should  be  securely 
set  upon  foundations  of  masonrj^  to  avoid 
settling,  and  should  moreover  be  scientifically 
grounded  in  order  to  prevent'  one  part  of  the 
building  from  greater  settling  than  another,  be- 
cause in  all  cases  a  building  must  settle  a  fra(5tion 
of  an  inch. 

Wood  Framing. — ^Assuming  the  construcflion 
of  a  story  and  a  half  dwelling  with  a  foundation 
of  masonry  and  superstru(5lure  of  wood,  the 
next  operation  after  a  concrete  basement  wall 
has  been  completed  is  the  eredlion  of  a  wood 
frame.  Incidentally,  in  all  cases  the  masonry 
wall  should  extend  to  the  bottom  of  the  first 
floor  joists  rather  than  to  the  grade  only;  other- 
wise the  frame  superstrucfture  must  start  at  the 
grade  and  the  first  floor  joists  be  supported  by 
a  wood  plate.  Thus  the  upper  part  of  the  base- 
ment wall  is  of  frame  and,  unless  plastered  on  the 
inside,  allows  the  wind  to  blow  into  the  cellar 
making  the  house  difficult  to  heat. 

Around  the  outside  edge  of  the  concrete  wall 
enclosing  the  basement  a  continuous  i"  x  lo" 
timber  is  set,  perfedlly  level,  and  ^"  x  lo''  joists 
are  laid  from  wall  to  wall,  or  wall  to  girder, 
placed  usually  sixteen  inches  apart  to  receive 
the  rough  floor.    These  joists  are  held  in  place 

182 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

by  spiking  through  the  edge  timber  into  the 
ends  of  the  joists.  A  very  good  method  of 
anchoring  this  floor  frame  in  place  is  by  pouring 
grout,  a  soft  mixture  of  cement,  sand  and  water, 
on  top  of  the  concrete  wall  between  the  timbers, 
thereby  firmly  imbedding  them,  and  also  stop- 
ping all  cracks  which  would  otherwise  admit  air. 
This  method  of  framing,  although  not  in  common 
use,  probably  excels  the  solid  or  box  sill  con- 
stru(flion.  A  rough  floor  having  been  laid  over 
the  entire  first  floor  area,  the  house  as  far  as 
constru(5led  is  a  large  platform  with  such  open- 
ings as  will  later  be  required  for  chimneys, 
hearths,  lifts,  vents,  duc5ls  and  stairways,  framed 
securely. 

The  next  operation  consists  in  laying  probably 
a  z"  X  ^'  plate  around  the  entire  wall  of  the 
building,  and  also  on  the  line  of  all  inside  parti- 
tions upon  which  are  to  be  erected  studding  or 
upright  i"  X  ^'  pieces.  Studding  are  usually 
set  sixteen  inches  apart  or  on  centres,  spiked  at 
the  bottom  to  the  2,"  x  4"  plate,  and  receiving  on 
top  another  continuous  plate  made  of  two 
1"  x  4''  timbers  lapped  at  the  corners  and  break 
jointed  at  other  places,  where  it  is  necessary  to 
splice  the  continuous  parts.  Studding  as  well 
as  floor  joists  should  have  braces  or  bridging 
inserted  between  them,  in  order  to  insure  rigid- 
ity. The  height  of  this  double  plate  varies 
according  to  the  use  of  the  wall  or  partition.  Its 
purpose  is  to  provide  a  bearing  for  second-floor 
joists  and  also  rafters.  In  outside  walls,  there- 
fore, the  plate  must  come  at  the  proper  height 
according  to  the  design  of  the  building  to  prop- 

183 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

erly  provide  a  seat  for  the  end  of  the  rafters. 
In  the  assumed  story  and  a  half  house  the  plate 
would  probably  be  about  four  feet  above  the 
second-floor  joists,  depending  upon  the  pitch  of 
the  roof  and  the  number  and  location  of  rooms 
in  the  half  story.  Usually  the  space  under  the 
low  part  of  the  roof  is  either  used  for  closets  and 
store  rooms  or  is  not  used  at  all.  In  case,  then, 
the  double  plate  or  roof  plate  is  a  distance  above 
the  second-floor  joists,  a  bearing  must  be  pro- 
vided for  the  ends  of  these  joists.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  inserting  into  the  studding  on  the 
inside  of  the  wall  a  i"  x  &'  ribbon  or  board  and 
nailing  it  in  place,  upon  which  the  joists  rest. 
However,  it  is  necessary  to  nail  the  joists  to  the 
uprights  as  well  as  allowing  them  to  bear  upon 
this  board.     (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  III.) 

Rafters  are  usually  made  of  2."  x  d"  pieces 
placed  twenty-four  inches  on  centres,  unless  the 
rafters  are  to  receive  lathe  and  plaster,  in  which 
case  they  should  be  sixteen  inches  on  centres  in 
order  to  give  more  nailings  for  the  lathe  and 
consequently  more  stiffness  to  the  plastered 
wall.  The  reason  that  studding  and  rafters, 
as  well  as  floor  joists  are  placed  either  twenty- 
four  inches  or  sixteen  inches  on  centres  is  that 
wood  lathe  are  four  feet  long,  thereby  allowing 
the  lathe  to  cover  either  two  or  three  spaces 
between  frame  timbers.  Rafters  are,  of  course, 
used  over  the  entire  roof,  including  dormers  and 
other  projecfting  parts.  All  angles  in  the  roof, 
especially  those  forming  valleys,  should  have 
extra  strong  boards  the  length  of  the  angle, 
against  which  rafters  cut  with  diagonal  ends  are 

184 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Spiked.  Hips  and  ridges  need  have  only  light 
boards  against  which  to  spike  the  rafter  ends 
because  the  stress  is  in  compression  and  the 
parts  are  already  pradlically  rigid.  In  framing 
rafters  and  all  other  wood  members  around 
chimneys,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  woodwork 
two  inches  at  least  away  from  the  brick,  for  two 
reasons:  one  is  to  allow  the  chimney  to  settle 
independently  of  the  woodwork;  and  the  other 
is  to  guard  against  fire,  since  bricks  may  become 
so  heated  as  to  inflame  dry  timbers. 

Over  all  exterior  walls  and  the  roof  surface, 
a  rough  boarding  is  nailed  in  place.  Ordinarily 
cheap  matched  material  is  employed,  but  com- 
mon boards  four,  six  or  eight  inches  wide  may  be 
used,  allowing  two  inches  between  each  board 
instead  of  laying  them  close  together  as  would  be 
done  in  case  matched  lumber  was  used.  This 
boarding  is  called  sheathing,  and  should  be 
nailed  to  the  outside  walls  diagonally  rather  than 
horizontally,  to  stiffen  the  entire  frame  of  the 
building  against  wind  pressure.  For  the  same 
reason  rough  or  under-flooring  may  also  be  laid 
diagonally.  Another  advantage  in  using  diag- 
onal rough  boarding  in  all  parts  of  the  building 
is  that  when  finish  boarding  such  as  floors  and 
siding  are  nailed  on  top,  the  joints  between 
boards  will  not  run  in  the  same  diredlion,  thereby 
eliminating  any  chance  of  cracks  between  boards 
coming  exacftly  opposite  each  other,  also  pro- 
viding better  nailing  facilities. 

Door  and  window  openings  are  not  sheathed 
over,  the  location  of  all  openings  having  been 
determined    from    the    working   drawings,    and 

i8s 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

framed  in  the  studding  by  using  double  members 
on  all  sides,  and  in  case  of  wide  openings,  by 
trussing  members  across  the  top  of  the  opening. 
In  a  finished  building  sheathing  is  not  in  ev- 
idence, so  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  without 
close  inspedlion  how  a  building  is  sheathed. 
For  this  reason  it  is  quite  often  omitted,  espe- 
cially in  houses  eredled  for  speculative  purposes. 

On  top  of  sheathing,  especially  on  the  walls 
of  the  building,  standard  building  paper  should 
be  applied,  each  strip  lapping  about  halfway 
over  the  strip  below  and  held  in  place  by  means 
of  large-headed  tacks  or  other  contrivances. 
Building  paper  costs  but  very  little  and  for  its 
cost  gives  more  insulation  to  a  building  than  any 
other  part  of  the  strudlure,  so  that  in  climates 
at  all  severe  it  should  never  be  omitted.  The 
paper  should  be  especially  well  fitted  around  all 
openings,  under  the  eaves,  and  at  the  base  of  the 
wood  strucfture,  where  it  joins  the  masonry. 

The  outside  walls  of  a  dwelling  having  been 
covered  with  building  paper,  perhaps  only  a 
portion  at  a  time,  are  ready  for  the  outside 
finish,  which  in  a  brick  veneer  house  would  be  a 
four-inch  brick  wall  set  an  inch  or  so  away  from 
the  building  paper;  or  in  a  frame  building  of 
the  type  assumed,  would  be  shingles  laid  perhaps 
with  five  inches  of  the  shingle  to  the  weather; 
lap  siding,  which  is  the  common  siding  used  in 
the  east;  rustic  of  one  pattern  or  another,  which 
is  the  common  siding  used  in  the  west;  undressed 
boards  lapped  in  order  to  prevent  leakage;  ce- 
ment plaster  on  metal  lathe,  furred  out  from  the 
building  paper;  or  some  other  special  material. 

1 86 


HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  roof  may  be  covered  with  wood  shingles 
laid  about  four  inches  to  the  weather,  slate,  tile, 
tin,  or  patent  roofing  material. 

Exterior  Finish. — Included  in  exterior  finish 
are  the  finish  wall  material,  window  and  outside 
door  frames,  sash  and  doors,  casings,  water 
tables,  eaves,  cornices,  barge  boards,  dormers, 
porches,  etc.  Door  and  window  frames  should 
be  made  especially  well  according  to  carefully 
prepared  details,  to  insure  against  leakage  of 
air  and  water.  Many  types  are  in  use,  but  in 
the  better  class  of  houses  the  frames  are  made 
to  order  to  suit  the  conditions.  Around  the  out- 
side of  such  frames  flashing  of  tin  or  copper 
should  be  employed  to  guard  against  the  seepage 
of  rain  water  between  the  frame  and  other  parts 
of  the  strucfture.  The  detail  of  the  window 
frame  depends  especially  upon  the  type  of  win- 
dow, since  casement,  pivoted,  double  hung,  sta- 
tionary and  other  types  may  be  used.  Around 
all  door  and  window  frames  a  casing  is  usually 
applied  in  various  manners,  allowing  always  at 
the  bottom  a  sill  with  a  wash  on  the  top  surface 
from  which  water  will  readily  flow.  Under  the 
outside  edge  of  the  sill  a  small  groove  should  be 
cut,  called  a  drip,  which  is  designed  to  prevent 
water  from  flowing  back  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  member.    (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  IV.) 

Water  tables  are  belt  courses  or  bands  run- 
ning horizontally,  provided  for  the  purpose  of 
condudling  water  which  flows  down  the  side  wall 
of  the  building  away  from  the  parts  beneath, 
especially  away  from  the  foundation  wall,  at 
which  line  a  water  table  is  usually  placed.    Water 

187 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

tables  may  be  made  by  cutting  a  small  timber 
in  a  shape  which  is  much  like  a  window  sill,  or 
by  curving  a  siding  or  shingle  surface  sharply 
outward,  or  by  some  other  device. 

The  chief  exterior  member  of  a  building  is  the 
cornice.  In  general,  cornices  are  of  two  types. 
One  is  the  box  cornice,  which  is  enclosed  with  a 
facing  of  wood  members,  usually  having  a  metal 
lined  box  gutter.  The  other  is  the  exposed 
cornice,  in  which  the  rafter  ends  usually  show, 
and  a  hanging  gutter  of  metal  or  wood, — us- 
ually metal, — is  employed.  The  variations  in 
both  types  are  almost  numberless;  pracftically 
no  two  buildings  have  cornices  exadlly  alike. 
However,  similarity  of  constru(5lion  in  localities 
is  very  much  in  evidence. 

Box  cornices  are  construdled  by  building  a 
rough  background  for  the  cornice  facing,  consist- 
ing principally  of  the  rafter  end  and  outlook 
member,  and  braces  to  support  the  gutter  and 
other  parts.  When  this  is  set  in  place  according 
to  the  design  of  the  cornice,  the  finish  members 
are  applied  and  fastened  in  place  with  finishing 
nails.  In  box  cornices  mouldings  are  invariably 
used.  The  typical  cornice  for  a  colonial  house 
is  of  this  type.     (See  Plate  43.) 

Exposed  cornices  are  usually  construcfted  us- 
ing the  acftual  rafter  ends  as  a  base.  Some- 
times, however,  the  rafter  ends  are  applied  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  the  cornice.  The  space 
immediately  below  this  type  of  cornice,  includ- 
ing perhaps  the  cornice  itself,  is  called  the  eaves. 
The  gutter  is  hung  at  the  extreme  edge  of  the 
cornice.     Gable  ends  and  dormers  are  finished 

188 


Plate  43 
The  Two  Main  Types  of  Wood  Cornices 


189 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

according  to  the  charadler  of  the  house.  In 
houses  of  colonial  type,  moulded  cornices,  edg- 
ings or  crowns  are  employed,  according  to  the 
design.  In  less  formal  and  English  houses,  other 
finishes  are  used,  of  which  the  barge  board  is 
the  most  common.  A  barge  board  is  a  plank 
set  a  short  distance  away  from  the  gable  or 
dormer  end  and  forms  a  facing  terminating  the 
roof  of  the  building.  Usually  a  small  mould  is 
employed  at  the  top  edge  for  a  finish.  Barge 
boards  are  supported  by  means  of  brackets. 
Elaborations  on  the  barge  board,  sometimes 
called  a  verge  board,  are  used  extensively  in 
other  than  the  most  simple  houses. 

Exterior  finish  is  of  vital  importance  in  giving 
style  or  characfter  to  a  building.  Not  only  is  a 
good  general  proportion  necessary,  but  an  ac- 
curate working  out  of  each  large  and  small 
part  is  essential  to  the  greatest  success. 


190 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  at  the  scale  of  i"=i'  o"  a  concrete  founda- 
tion wall  and  specify  all  things  that  pertain  to  it. 

(2)  Draw  a  sedlional  view  of  an  open  cornice. 

(3)  Draw  a  se(5lional  view  of  a  box  cornice. 

(4)  Make  a  drawing  of  a  window  sill,  stool  and  lower 
rail  of  sash  to  show  necessary  precautions  for  keeping  out 
driving  rain  and  snow.  The  detail  may  be  for  any  one  of 
the  several  kinds  of  windows  and  should  be  shown  in  cross 
sedlion  at  large  scale. 

References 

Kidder. — Building  Construdlion  and  Superintendence. 
Parts  I  and  II. 

Berg. — Safe  Building. 

Clark. — Building  Superintendence. 


191 


CHAPTER    X.      INTERIOR     FINISH 

LATHE  and  Plaster. — ^After  a  building  is 
enclosed,  that  is,  when  the  exterior 
facing  and  roof  are  complete,  it  is 
ready  for  plaster.  Plaster  is  applied 
to  a  lathe  surface  by  means  of  a  trowel,  the 
lathe  surface  being  made  by  nailing  wood  or 
metal  lathe  to  the  furring  strips  or  to  the  stud- 
ding or  uprights  of  a  building.  Plaster  is  of 
two  kinds  in  general,  one  called  lime  plaster 
and  the  other  cement  plaster.  Lime  plaster  or 
mortar  is  made  by  mixing  unslaked  lime,  water 
and  sand  in  certain  proportions,  and  for  the  first 
coat  of  plaster  by  adding  cattle  hair  in  order  to 
make  the  mass  hold  together  when  put  in  place. 
For  other  coats  of  plaster  the  hair  is  omitted. 
After  the  first  coat  has  been  applied,  it  is 
scratched  with  the  point  of  the  trowel  to  give 
it  a  rough  surface  so  that  the  following  coat 
will  adhere.  The  second  or  third  coat  may  be 
finished  by  rubbing  the  trowel  over  it,  using  a 
circular  motion,  forming  what  is  called  a  sand 
finish.  To  obtain  a  hard,  smooth  finish,  a  very 
thin  coat  of  patent  plaster  may  be  applied, 
which  when  dry  becomes  white.  The  chief 
ingredient  of  patent  plaster  is  plaster  of  Paris. 
Lime  plaster  is  used  only  for  interior  work. 

Cement  plaster  is  made  by  mixing  together 
Portland  cement,  sand  and  water  in  certain 
proportions,  and  is  used  especially  for  exterior 
work.  The  first  coat  is  worked  into  or  between 
the  lathing  with  a  trowel,  and  is  about  one-half 
of  an  inch  thick.  While  still  wet,  the  surface 
is  scratched  as  is  the  first  coat  of  lime  mortar. 

192 


INTERIOR  FINISH 

The  second  coat  of  cement  plaster  is  applied 
with  the  trowel  in  a  similar  manner,  and  if  not 
considered  to  be  the  last  coat,  receives  still  a 
third  coat  which  may  either  be  put  on  with  a 
trowel  or  put  on  by  casting  very  wet  plaster 
against  it  with  the  trowel  or  a  paddle.  This 
operation  produces  what  is  generally  termed 
rough-cast  plaster,  or  stucco.  In  case  small 
pebbles  are  mixed  into  the  plaster  used  for  the 
final  coat,  and  the  whole  mixture  dashed  against 
the  wall  with  the  trowel,  the  surface  produced 
is  called  pebble  dash.  Many  different  plaster 
efi"e(5ts  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  various 
materials. 

Plaster  is  applied  to  either  wood  lathe  or  metal 
lathe.  In  ordinary  constru(5lion  the  inside  walls 
are  lathed  with  small  strips  of  wood  four  feet 
long,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  wide  and 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  laid  up  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lathe  apart.  For  extra  good  interior 
plaster  work  and  for  all  exterior  plaster  work, 
a  lathe  made  by  expanding  sheet  metal  is  used 
as  a  background  for  the  plaster.  Such  lathe 
is  called  expanded  metal  lathe,  and  is  made  by 
many  manufa(fturers  in  different  ways.  The 
furring  upon  which  the  lathe  is  nailed  is  usually 
made  of  thin  strips  of  wood  an  inch  or  two 
thick,  securely  nailed  in  place  upon  the  wall  of 
frame  or  masonry  behind. 

As  a  means  of  stopping  fire  which  may  get 
into  the  walls  of  a  frame  building,  or  as  a  means 
of  stopping  vermin  such  as  rats  and  mice  from 
running  between  joists  and  studding,  the  spaces 
between  frame  timbers  may  be  plastered.    This 

193 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

is  called  back  plastering.  In  rigorous  climates, 
back  plastering  is  often  done  to  make  the  build- 
ing warmer  by  keeping  out  wind.  Here  all 
spaces  between  outside  timbers  are  back  plas- 
tered. 

In  plastering  the  interior  of  a  house  certain 
precautions  should  be  observed  in  order  to  in- 
sure a  satisfacftory  result.  Lathe  should  never 
run  through  a  wood  partition  from  one  room  to 
another  as  a  continuous  lathed  surface,  but 
should  turn  with  the  corner  of  each  room  in  order 
to  avoid  cracking  of  the  plaster  from  settlement 
after  it  has  become  hard.  All  walls  should  be 
plastered  from  the  ceiling  to  the  rough  under- 
iioor,  including  all  wall  surface,  even  though  a 
wainscoting  or  fixture  is  to  be  built  solidly 
against  a  part  of  the  wall.  In  other  words,  the 
space  behind  built-in-fixtures  should  be  plastered 
as  though  the  fixtures  were  not  to  be  eredled 
there.  Before  the  plaster  of  any  room  is  applied, 
small  strips  of  wood  called  grounds  should  be 
nailed  to  the  lath  in  such  places  where  wood 
finish  is  to  be  later  applied  on  top  of  the  plaster. 
Grounds,  therefore,  become  nailing  strips  for 
the  wood  finish,  and  also  mark  a  perfedlly  ver- 
tical surface  to  which  the  plaster  surface  is  to 
be  accurately  brought.  In  the  plastering  of  a 
house,  it  is  well  when  possible  to  allow  the  house 
to  settle  for  a  few  weeks  or  months  before  taking 
up  the  plaster  work.  After  plastering  the  house, 
all  rooms  should  be  well  ventilated  in  order  to 
allow  the  plaster  to  dry.  In  freezing  weather 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  warm  the  building 
artificially  while  the  plaster  is  being  applied  and 

194 


INTERIOR  FINISH 

while  It  is  drying.  To  avoid  breaking  of  plaster 
on  projecfting  corners,  it  is  necessary  to  apply 
to  the  lath  before  plastering,  strips  of  wood  or 
metal  called  corner  beads,  which  are  made  for 
the  purpose.  In  order  to  prevent  window  sash, 
doors  and  other  woodwork  from  becoming  damp 
on  account  of  the  wet  plaster,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  the  building  absolutely  free  from  such 
finishing  materials  while  the  plastering  is  being 
carried  on.  However,  the  window  openings 
should  be  closed  temporarily  by  means  of  old 
sash,  boards  or  muslin.  The  plastering  of  a 
building  is  very  important  and  should  never 
be  negledled.     (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  V.) 

Both  interior  and  exterior  plaster  may  be 
colored  by  using  pigments.  Also,  the  color 
of  the  sand  itself  determines  largely  the  color 
of  the  finished  work.  White  sand  is  desirable  in 
case  colors  are  to  be  mixed  with  the  plaster,  or 
in  case  a  natural  white  effe(5t  is  wanted.  If  a 
wall  is  to  be  painted,  papered,  or  otherwise 
covered,  the  color  of  the  plaster  is  not  important. 

Interior  Woodwork. — When  the  plaster  is 
thoroughly  dry,  finish  wood  material  may  be 
hauled  and  stored  in  the  building  ready  for  use. 
At  this  time  it  is  important  that  the  wood  be 
inspecfted,  in  order  that  undesirable  pieces  as 
well  as  unspecified  kinds  be  not  set  in  place. 
Otherwise  the  inside  material  might  need  to  be 
removed  at  a  later  and  more  inconvenient  time. 
Interior  trim,  such  as  members  which  are  applied 
direcftly  to  the  grounds  which  have  been  pro- 
vided in  the  plaster,  is  matched,  fitted  and  nailed 
with  finish  nails,  the  heads  being  sunk  below  the 

19s 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

surface  of  the  wood  and  the  holes  thus  made 
later  filled  with  putty.  The  method  of  joinery 
of  plain  trim  varies,  depending  upon  the  general 
quality  of  the  work.  In  ordinary  work,  where 
common  wood  is  employed,  members  of  wood 
may  be  simply  butted  one  against  another; 
in  better  classes  of  work,  wood  members  should 
be  mitred,  that  is,  the  ends  cut  diagonally  as 
corners  of  a  picfture  frame,  and  fitted  together; 
and  in  the  best  class  of  work,  casings  used  as  a 
frame  should  be  mitred  on  the  face  and  lapped 
on  the  back.  This  method  applies  principally 
to  door  and  window  heads  where  they  connec5l 
with  the  side  trim. 

In  cabinetwork  many  methods  of  joinery 
are  employed  by  experts  in  securing  one  piece 
of  wood  to  another.  The  common  joints,  be- 
sides butt  and  mitre  joints,  are  tongue  and 
groove,  cupped,  housed,  dovetail,  and  others, 
the  exacft  chara(fler  of  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  investigate.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  all 
parts  be  so  fastened  together  that  shrinkage 
and  warping  will  not  damage  or  disfigure  the 
woodwork.  Some  special  precautions  may  be 
mentioned  in  regard  to  methods  of  making  parts 
which  are  operated  by  the  occupants  of  the 
finished  house.  Doors  should  be  hung  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  allow  them  ample  space  for  action. 
It  is  not  well  to  have  a  doorknob  in  the  corner 
of  a  room.  Outside  doors  are  more  convenient 
in  most  cases  when  they  open  out,  and  are  also 
more  wind  and  waterproof.  Usually,  however, 
they  are  made  to  open  in  to  allow  for  screen 
doors.     Front  doors  should  always  open  in,  on 

196 


INTERIOR  FINISH 

account  of  the  convenience  In  answering  the  door 
bell.  In  the  hingeing  of  casement  and  French 
windows,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  kind 
of  hangings  which  are  contemplated,  since  the 
windows  swinging  out  must  necessarily  have  the 
screen  on  the  inside  and  cannot  have  sash  cur- 
tains. Casement  windows  swinging  in  require 
that  the  screen  be  on  the  exterior,  and  that  cur- 
tains be  on  the  window  sash  itself  rather  than 
hung  in  the  ordinary  fashion. 

In  the  acftual  construdlion  of  cupboards, 
lockers,  doors,  bookcases  and  other  fixtures, 
according  to  the  prepared  design,  it  is  necessary 
to  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  carpenter 
or  cabinetmaker  for  satisfacflory  results.  Con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  the  use  of  drawers 
and  consequently  to  the  weight  of  their  contents. 
Large  drawers  to  contain  heavy  materials  should 
always  be  construcfted  on  rollers  rather  than 
slides,  so  that  the  operation  of  them  will  be 
easy.  One  drawer  pull,  except  for  the  largest 
drawers,  is  better  than  two. 

When  nailing  a  moulding  whose  funcftion  it 
is  to  cover  a  joint  or  crack,  the  nails  employed 
should  not  bite  into  the  trim  member,  that 
forms  the  joint,  but  into  the  ground  member, 
because  in  case  of  shrinkage  of  the  important 
piece  of  wood,  splitting  at  the  line  of  the  nails 
might  occur.  For  instance,  a  quarter  round 
shoe  mould  employed  at  the  angle  of  the  floor 
with  the  wall  to  cover  the  joint  between  the 
floor  and  the  baseboard,  should  be  nailed  to  the 
floor  rather  than  to  the  baseboard,  in  order  to 
give  the  baseboard  a  chance  to  shrink  freely. 

197 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

In  case  of  shrinkage,  this  mould  will  continue 
to  serve  its  finishing  purpose  of  covering  the 
joint.  The  same  is  true  of  flooring,  which  by 
the  way  is  the  last  wood  finish  to  be  put  in  place. 
When  secret  nailed  each  board  should  have  op- 
portunity to  shrink  a  fracflion  of  an  inch,  which 
would  only  cause  the  joint  between  boards  to  be 
a  trifle  wider  and  not  cause  splitting  of  floor 
boards.     (See  Plate  42,  Fig.  V.) 

All  finish  woodwork  after  it  is  in  place  should 
be  scraped,  sandpapered  and  rubbed  to  a  smooth 
finish  by  the  carpenter  who  performed  the  work. 
Floors  especially  should  be  ground  down  so  that 
no  edge  of  a  board  proje(5ls  above  the  face  of  the 
floor.  Since  floors  are  the  most  easily  damaged 
of  all  woodwork,  they  should  not  be  put  in  place 
until  heating,  lighting  and  plumbing  fixtures  as 
well  as  finishing  hardware  have  been  installed. 
During  other  operations  in  the  house,  such  as 
painting,  varnishing,  staining  and  more  elaborate 
interior  decoration,  finished  floors  should  be 
covered  with  paper  or  canvas. 

Putting  on  of  Hardware. — Finish  hardware  is 
applied  to  the  woodwork  by  the  carpenter,  and 
is  a  part  of  his  work.  Great  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised in  the  application  in  order  that  doors, 
windows  and  other  movable  parts  will  act  with- 
out unnecessary  fricflion.  Double  hung  window 
sash  should  be  properly  balanced  by  the  use  of 
weights,  which  is  sometimes  a  tedious  operation. 
Casement  window  adjusters  should  be  applied 
not  only  to  perform  properly,  but  to  look  espe- 
cially well.  Bolts  and  locks  invariably  require 
a  mortise  or  chiseled  out   recess  in  the  wood. 

198 


INTERIOR  FINISH 
Unless  this  work  is  done  most  carefully,  wood- 
work upon  which  great  pains  have  been  ex- 
pended for  a  good  appearance  will  be  damaged. 
Convenient  heights  for  window  fasteners,  door 
knobs  and  pulls  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion before  the  hardware  is  put  on.  In  many 
cases  a  compromise  is  necessary  on  account  of 
the  location  of  the  door  or  window,  or  the  dis- 
tance of  a  part  of  it  such  as  rails  and  panels, 
above  the  floor.  Much  of  the  finish  hardware, 
as  door  knobs  and  escutcheons,  which  are 
usually  held  in  place  by  means  of  bolts  and 
screws,  should  not  be  put  in  place  until  the  wood- 
work has  received  its  final  coat  of  paint,  varnish 
or  stain. 

Painting,  Varnishing  and  Staining. — ^The  style 
of  finish  for  both  the  exterior  and  interior  in 
regard  to  painting,  varnishing  and  staining 
should  be  predetermined  and  specified,  and  a 
reliable  painter  employed  to  furnish  the  mate- 
rials and  perform  the  labor.  Quite  often  it  is 
well  for  the  owner  to  provide  the  materials  and 
employ  the  painters,  in  order  to  assure  himself 
that  only  genuine,  reliable  materials  are  used, 
since  there  is  a  great  opportunity  for  unscru- 
pulous persons  to  substitute  imitation  materials 
for  genuine.  The  exacfl  methods  of  application 
of  these  finish  materials  depend  upon  the  effedl 
or  finish  desired.  Methods  recommended  by  the 
manufacflurers  of  paints  are  more  reliable  than 
the  methods  of  local  painters,  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  doing  things  in  their  own  way.  The 
chief  precautions  in  painting  are  to  allow  each 
coat    to    dry    thoroughly    before    the    applica- 

199 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

tion  of  the  next,  and  to  protecft  adjacent  sur- 
faces. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  finish  for  wood  in 
regard  to  the  appHcation  is  enamel.  This  mate- 
rial should  be  applied  only  to  edge  grain  or 
quarter-sawed  wood,  unless  the  wood  is  of  white 
pine  or  a  similar  variety,  because  an  absolutely 
smooth  surface  is  necessary  to  prevent  waves  and 
irregularities  from  showing  in  the  finished  enam- 
eled surface  when  subjecfted  to  high  light.  For  a 
reliable  finish  two  or  three  coats  of  enamel  on 
top  of  four  coats  of  interior  paint  are  usually 
required,  each  coat  up  to  the  final  one  being 
rubbed  smooth  with  mineral  wool  or  sandpaper. 
On  account  of  the  tendency  of  enamel  to  flow 
and  form  beads,  all  liquid  should  be  applied 
sparingly  and  evenly. 

Glazing. — Glazing  consists  of  the  operation 
of  putting  in  place  for  permanent  use  glass  of  all 
kinds.  Originally  glazing  was  a  part  of  the 
painter's  work,  but  of  late  it  has  been  taken  over 
by  the  planing  mills,  cabinetmakers  and  car- 
penters, who,  on  account  of  the  close  association 
between  woodwork  and  glazing,  are  more  capable 
of  performing  the  necessary  labor.  Common 
window  glass  is  usually  held  in  place  by  means 
of  triangular  pieces  of  zinc,  called  glazier's 
points,  and  putty  which  covers  the  zinc  points. 
In  the  best  work  back  puttying  is  done,  whereby 
the  edge  of  the  glass  is  imbedded  in  putty  before 
the  regular  method  is  employed.  The  putty 
is  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  sash.  Doors, 
French  windows  and  also  plate  glass  windows 
should  always  be  glazed,  using  wood  stops  to 

2CX> 


INTERIOR  FINISH 

hold  the  glass  in  place,  and  should  have  a  bed 
of  putty  or  other  somewhat  elastic  material  upon 
which  the  heavy  glass  may  safely  bear.  Leaded 
glass  is  usually  furnished  by  specialists  and  set 
in  place  by  the  carpenter  with  wood  stops  and 
sometimes  with  special  metal  contrivances. 

In  the  inspecftion  of  the  glass  which  is  to  go 
into  a  building,  it  is  important  to  observe  by  the 
thickness  and  reflections  the  exadt  kind  of  glass 
received,  and  note  whether  or  not  it  is  the  kind 
specified.  Plate  glass  may  quite  readily  be 
distinguished,  but  the  quality  of  sheet  glass  is 
hard  to  determine.  It  is  well  to  insist  that  the 
trade-mark  of  the  manufacturer  be  left  on  the 
glass.  In  regard  to  the  cleaning  of  glass  at  the 
completion  of  the  building,  the  painter  is  usually 
required  to  do  this,  because  he  is  pracflically 
the  last  man  on  the  job,  and  the  one  who  is  most 
liable  to  cause  the  glass  to  be  unclean.  The 
breakage  of  glass  in  a  house  during  constru(5lion 
must  be  paid  for  by  the  contracflor  who  in  the 
performance  of  his  labor  caused  the  glass  to  be 
broken. 

The  Completed  House. — ^The  house  is  said 
to  be  completed  when  all  the  materials  and  labor 
called  for  in  the  plans  and  specifications  have 
been  employed  and  the  condition  of  the  building 
is  satisfacftory  to  the  owner.  It  should  not  only 
be  finished  relative  to  all  parts  of  the  strucflure 
itself,  but  should  contain  as  well  all  appliances 
necessary  for  the  occupation  of  the  house  by  the 
owner.  These  appliances  include  heating,  light- 
ing, plumbing  and  other  incidental  fixtures  and 
machines. 

201 


Sketch  Problems 

(1)  Show  by  a  diagram  how  a  beam  for  a  ceiling  is 
usually  constru(5ted  and  held  in  place. 

(2)  Show  by  a  sketch  how  wood  lath  and  plaster  are 
applied  and  especially  how  the  coats  of  plaster  are  bonded. 

(3)  Make  a  detail  of  a  wood  base  showing  how  the  shoe 
mould  should  be  nailed  in  place.  Drawing  is  to  be  at  the 
scale  oi  ij4  "-1-0." 

(4)  Make  a  scale  drawing  showing  how  common  glass 
is  held  in  the  sash.  Letter  on  names  of  all  parts  and  ma- 
terials. 

References 

Kidder. — Building  Construction  and  Superintendence. 
Part  II. 

White. — Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them. 


302 


CHAPTER  XL  INTERIOR  DECORATION 
AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

INTRODUCTION. — Interior  decoration  is  a 
profession  in  itself  and  is  practiced  as 
such.  It  includes  not  only  plain  and 
elaborate  treatment  of  surfaces,  but  also 
interior  design.  Interior  decoration,  then,  may 
be  said  to  embody  architecflural  treatment, 
decoration  of  all  kinds,  and  complete  furnish- 
ings. The  work  of  the  interior  decorator  over- 
laps that  of  the  archite<ft,  which  has  caused 
fricftion  between  the  two  professions.  Regard- 
less of  who  performs  the  professional  duties 
connecfted  with  this  work,  the  same  principles 
are  involved.  Perhaps  the  architecft  is  better 
qualified  to  design  all  built-in  parts  of  the  dwell- 
ing, and  the  interior  decorator  better  qualified 
to  treat  surfaces  and  to  design  or  selecft  all  fur- 
nishings including  furniture,  rugs  and  hangings. 
Interior  decoration  and  treatment  of  surfaces 
here  discussed  include  color  schemes  and  com- 
mon treatments  in  general  for  the  wood  and 
plaster  work  of  all  parts  of  the  house. 

Color. — ^The  general  color  or  tone  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  house  is  of  great  importance,  in  that 
color  may  create  an  atmosphere  either  restful  or 
disturbing.  Colors  and  combinations  of  colors 
used  in  a  house  should  suggest  tranquillity,  and 
often  create  it.  In  other  words,  a  home  should 
express  contentment.  The  greatest  fa(5lor  in 
producing  tranquillity  is  the  use  of  neutral  tones, 
which,  while  they  should  not  be  employed  in 
every  article  of  the  room,  should  form  the  back- 
ground against  which  articles  of  utility  or  dec- 

203 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

oration  are  revealed.  Perhaps  the  best  and 
safest  colors  to  use  are  grays,  gray  greens,  browns 
and  buffs.  Each  may  have  a  large  number  of 
variations,  textures  and  surfaces  difficult  of 
description.  It  is  important  to  consider  whether 
or  not  a  surface  absorbs  light.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  a  dull  black  absorbs  pracftically 
all  of  the  light,  while  a  glazed  white  absorbs  very 
little  and  consequently  refle(5ls  light  to  a  large 
degree.  Each  finish  material  will  have  its 
tendency  one  way  or  the  other.  All  qualities  of 
the  materials  contemplated  for  use  must  be 
given  attention.  In  the  color  scheme  of  the 
interior  of  a  house,  it  is  well  to  carry  out  the 
same  or  similar  schemes  in  all  rooms,  rather  than 
to  make  radical  contrasts,  since  a  house  in  itself 
is  better  considered  as  a  unit  rather  than  as  a 
group  of  smaller  units.  Doors  standing  open 
often  show  a  number  of  rooms,  at  the  same  time 
causing  a  discord  of  color  if  rooms  are  not 
harmonious.  However,  there  should  be  a  mod- 
ification of  the  color  scheme  in  rooms  to  meet 
the  exacft  requirements  according  to  the  use  of 
each  part  of  the  house.  Occasionally  an  isolated 
part  of  the  house  or  the  rooms  on  the  upper 
floor  may  receive  a  treatment  absolutely  different 
in  color  from  the  main  part. 

Color  has  three  distindl  qualities,  called  the 
"constants  of  color."  They  are:  purity,  lu- 
minosity and  hue.  Purity  means  freedom  from 
any  other  color.  The  standards  of  pure  color 
are  the  colors  of  the  spe(ftrum.  Luminosity  or 
brightness  depends  upon  the  amount  of  light 
reflecfted  to  the  eye,  and  varies  with  the  degree 

204 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 
of  illumination.  It  follows  that  the  tone  of  the 
color  is  relative  to  its  degree  of  luminosity. 
Hue  depends  upon  the  refrangibility  or  wave 
lengths  of  colors: — Violet  has  the  .shortest  wave 
length  and  red  the  longest.  Hue  may  mean  color 
in  the  simple  sense.  In  combinations  of  two  or 
more  colors,  the  hue  is  determined  by  the  pre- 
dominating color.  A  shade  is  produced  by  add- 
ing black  to  a  color,  and  a  tint  is  produced  by 
adding  white. 

In  decoration,  harmony  of  color  is  of  first 
importance.  Means  of  obtaining  harmonious 
color  arrangements  are:  first,  by  neutralizing 
or  graying  the  colors;  second,  by  using  analogous 
or  like  colors;  third,  by  toning  the  colors  with  a 
dominant  color.  Pleasing  effecfls  may  be  ob- 
tained by  a  gradation  of  a  color  from  dark  to 
light  values  or  vice  versa.  Solid  colors  used 
together  in  contrast  should  be  separated  by  a 
narrow  band  of  black,  white,  gold  or  gray,  or  of 
black  and  white.  Brilliant  colors  are  difficult 
to  harmonize  in  pairs,  but  in  case  a  pair  of  bright 
colors  is  used,  one  should  be  used  in  a  much 
greater  proportion  either  in  area  or  intensity, 
than  the  other.  No  two  colors  should  be  used  in 
similar  quantities.  Any  two  colors  may  be 
brought  into  closer  harmony  by  the  use  of  a 
third.  No  definite  rules  can  be  given  for  the  com- 
bination of  colors  for  decoration  on  account  of 
the  vast  number  of  problems.  It  has  been  ob- 
served that  the  warm  colors  are  more  pleasing 
in  color  schemes  than  the  cold  ones.  The  warm 
colors  are  reds  and  yellows.  Combinations  of 
three  colors  may  be  suggested  as  follows:  Red, 

205 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

blue  and  yellow;  coral-red,  ultramarine,  and 
orange-amber;  scarlet,  olive-green  and  violet; 
orange,  green  and  violet;  purple,  yellow  and 
gray-green.  These  colors  were  the  favorites  of 
old  Italian  painters  and  show  a  predominance 
of  warm  colors. 

Period  Decoration. — By  period  decoration  is 
meant  the  imitation  of  a  certain  historic  style 
as  used  at  a  certain  period  and  in  a  certain  place. 
Among  the  common  period  styles  are  Empire, 
Louis  XV,  modern  Turkish,  and  others.  ,  Period 
decoration  really  necessitates  a  special  archi- 
tecftural,  as  well  as  decorative,  treatment.  Fur- 
niture, hangings,  rugs  and  all  other  equipment 
should  then  conform.  The  essential  of  period  dec- 
oration is  absolute  fidelity  to  the  type.  If  imi- 
tations are  not  true,  then  the  decoration  is  a  fail- 
ure. Period  decoration  should  not  be  attempted 
except  for  novel  or  eccentric  efi"e<fts,  and  usually 
in  isolated  country  houses  or  city  apartments. 

Decorative  Materials. — ^Among  the  materials 
employed  in  decoration  are  wood,  plaster,  orna- 
mental glass,  metal,  tile,  Beaver  board,  oil 
paint,  enamel,  varnish,  stain,  wax,  water  color, 
paper,  burlap,  leather,  tapestries,  brocades,  can- 
vas, linen,  silk  and  satin.  The  interior  of  a  house 
ready  for  decoration  consists  almost  entirely  of 
wood  and  plaster  surfaces  left  clean  for  the 
purpose. 

Wood  Treatments. — In  anticipation  of  deco- 
ration of  a  certain  characfter  the  design  of  the 
woodwork  is  such  as  to  almost  call  for  a  definite 
treatment.  A  colonial  house  would  have  fire- 
places, doors,  windows,  wainscotings  and  other 

206 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

wood  details  possibly  of  mahogany,  black  wal- 
nut, or  other  high  class  hard  wood,  but  more 
probably  of  a  good  soft  wood,  in  anticipation  of 
enamel  finish,  with  perhaps  mahogany  edgings. 
Mahogany  hand  rails,  and  tops  of  chair  rails, 
edges  of  steps  and  other  edgings  made  of  mahog- 
any, look  especially  well.  Mouldings  for  all 
woodwork  which  is  to  be  enameled  should  be 
very  small  and  refined,  because  when  finished 
smooth  and  white,  each  angle  and  curve  and  the 
shadows  cast  are  presented  to  the  eye  in  un- 
feigned sincerity,  as  is  a  marble  statue.  Each 
minute  part  must  be  true  to  the  whole  concep- 
tion. Measured  drawings  of  common  colonial 
white  enameled  or  painted  woodwork  of  early 
days  show  that  extraordinary  care  was  taken 
in  design  and  execution. 

Hard  woods  of  unquestioned  merit  should  be 
finished  naturally,  or  may  be  simply  darkened. 
Forms  and  mouldings  of  oak,  ash,  walnut, 
mahogany  and  maple  should  also  be  refined, 
but  not  to  the  same  degree  as  is  done  in  enameled 
woodwork.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
texture  of  these  woods  is  fine,  and  lines  made 
by  mouldings  show  remarkably  well.  Cheaper 
woods  should  really  be  stained  colors  to  give 
them  charadler,  as  the  grain  is  coarse  and  the 
natural  color  quite  often  poor  and  inconstant. 
A  very  good  treatment  for  common  wood  which 
does  not  contain  pitch  with  a  tendency  to  ooze, 
is  flat  paint  of  light  color.  Interior  paint  is  not 
fully  appreciated,  but  is  coming  into  use  again 
after  a  long  period  of  unpopularity.  It  is  far 
better  than  cheap  varnish. 

2fyj 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

In  general,  dull  finishes  in  paints,  varnishes, 
stains,  and  in  facft  in  all  treatments  of  surfaces, 
are  better  than  gloss  finishes.  Enamel  looks 
best  with  a  semi-dull  or  mixed  dull  and  gloss 
finish.  A  possible  exception  to  dull  finish  is 
flooring,  but  even  a  shiny  floor  will  not  stay  thus 
for  long.  Wood  floor  treatment  is  a  difficult 
problem,  since  rugs  have  happily  come  into  use, 
but  the  floor  that  is  most  permanently  satis- 
facftory  is  a  costly  hardwood  flooring  left  its 
natural  color  and  waxed. 

Plaster  Treatments. — ^The  walls  and  ceilings  of 
most  rooms  are  plastered.  Ornamental  plaster, 
which  is  usually  a  composition  containing  plaster 
of  Paris,  may  be  used  in  room  cornices,  ceiling 
coves,  ceiling  and  wall  panels  and  pattern  work 
or  staff.  All  plaster  may  be  left  in  its  natural 
condition,  but  is  garish  and  discolored.  Sand 
finish  or  rough  plaster  is  sometimes  colored  be- 
fore being  applied,  which  is  a  very  good  process 
for  rustic  effecfts.  It  is  more  often  painted  with 
water  color  or  calcimined  to  give  it  a  tint.  In 
the  latter  process,  which  is  very  cheap,  the 
principal  objecftion  is  that  a  nick  in  the  finished 
surface  shows  white  and  must  be  painted  over. 
Sand  finish  plaster  looks  well  painted  exa(5lly 
the  same  color  as  the  woodwork  of  the  room, 
using  a  flat  tone  paint. 

Hard  finished  or  patent  plaster,  used  for  walls 
and  ceilings,  as  well  as  ornamental  plaster,  may 
receive  any  finish  that  common  plaster  receives. 
Ornamental  plaster  is  invariably  decorated  by 
the  use  of  paints  or  stains  applied  with  a  brush, 
because  it  is  in  relief  and  consequently  irregular. 

208 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

Hard  finish  is  used  with  the  idea  of  covering  it 
with  paper  or  other  material  rather  than  with 
a  liquid  color. 

The  use  of  wallpaper  is  almost  universal,  and 
rightfully  so,  since  no  other  material  is  so  eco- 
nomical and  at  the  same  time  so  artistic  and 
serviceable.  Wallpapers  are  of  a  vast  number  of 
varieties,  designs  and  qualities,  some  of  which 
may  not  be  considered  to  be  economical.  Al- 
though papers,  like  other  materials  used  to  treat 
wall  surfaces,  should  be  essentially  a  back- 
ground, certain  pronounced  designs  and  colors 
may  be  employed  for  what  are  really  temporary 
effecfts,  such  as  "Mother  Goose"  patterns  for 
nurseries,  and  highly  colored  floral  or  bird  de- 
signs for  bedrooms  and  dining  rooms.  These 
papers  sooner  or  later  become  tiresome,  and  are 
replaced.  Cheap  papers  almost  invariably  fade, 
so  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  use  them. 

The  cheapest  cloth  used  as  a  wall  cover  is 
burlap.  In  common  work  this  material  may  be 
glued  to  the  plaster,  usually  as  a  wainscoting 
panel,  with  wood  on  all  sides,  and  either  left  in 
its  natural  state  or  painted,  varnished  or  shel- 
laced. Burlap  is  serviceable,  and  in  dull  shades 
forms  a  good  background  for  picftures.  Canvas, 
linen,  silk  and  satin  are  also  glued  to  plaster  to 
be  used  as  a  surface  for  receiving  decorations  in 
oil  or  water  color  paints.  These  are  very  expen- 
sive and  used  only  in  costly  residences.  Leather, 
tapestries  and  brocades  are  fastened  to  plaster 
walls  by  means  of  wood  stops.  Each  piece  of 
material  is  in  itself  supposed  to  be  a  work  of  art, 
consequently  is  framed  by  the  use  of  mouldings. 
'  209 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

The  walls  of  a  room  to  receive  this  sort  of  deco- 
ration are  divided  into  panels  of  such  proportions 
as  to  produce  an  architecftural  treatment  and  to 
give  each  piece  of  decoration  the  proper  setting. 
Still  another  means  of  decorating  walls  requiring 
a  special  permanent  plaster  surface  is  the  use  of 
frescoes  and  mural  decorations.  These  are  sim- 
ply more  or  less  elaborate  paintings  for  which 
water  color  paints  are  generally  used. 

In  conclusion  it  is  well  to  note  that  walls  are 
either  used  as  a  background  for  the  furnish- 
ings, or  as  a  means  of  displaying  works  of  art. 
In  dwellings  the  former  use  is  far  more  preferable. 
Even  though  beautiful  works  of  art  do  form  a 
cover  for  a  wall,  they  may  still  serve  modestly 
as  a  background.  Unpretentiousness  in  a  house 
is  worth  far  more  than  vulgar  display. 

Ornamental  Glass,  Tile,  Metal,  etc. — Some 
materials  are  used  in  interior  decoration  in  a 
special  manner. 

Art  glass  may  be  employed  in  a  feature  win- 
dow, but  not  in  all  windows  unless  a  simple 
leaded  glass  sash  is  used  throughout.  The  glass 
itself  in  this  treatment  should  be  clear  white 
glass.  Ornamental  glass  in  residences  should 
be  used  discreetly,  and  unless  of  good  color  and 
design  should  not  be  used  at  all.  The  question 
of  quality,  if  puzzling  to  the  owner,  should  be 
referred  to  an  expert. 

Tile,  an  excellent  material,  and  substitutes, 
also  usually  reliable,  produce  an  effecft  of  sub- 
stantiality. In  floors  and  fireplaces,  dull  tiles 
of  solid,  mottled  or  graded  colors  look  well. 
Glazed  white  or  even  dull  white  tile  should  not 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

be  used  for  interiors  except  where  sanitary  con- 
ditions are  paramount.  In  order  to  get  the  best 
tile  texture  or  effe(5l,  the  use  of  tiles  which  differ 
in  shade  or  color  is  advocated.  A  wall  or  floor 
thus  made  has  an  added  interest  over  one  made 
of  tiles  all  exacftly  the  same. 

Metals  in  the  form  of  ornamental  finishing 
hardware,  especially  wrought  strap  hinges,  give 
to  a  house  a  unique  quality,  but  other  parts, 
especially  the  design  of  the  woodwork,  must  be 
adapted  to  the  use  of  it.  Board  or  batten  doors 
call  for  strap  hinges  rather  than  for  butt  hinges, 
which  are  ordinarily  used  on  panel  doors.  Cabi- 
network may  have  iron,  brass  or  bronze  hard- 
ware of  special  design.  Doors  equipped  with 
wrought  strap  hinges  and  clever  latches  some- 
times add  a  charm,  especially  in  bungalow  work. 
The  lighting  fixtures  should  harmonize  with 
the  hardware  and  conform  to  the  chara(5ler  of 
the  room,  or  be  in  keeping  if  an  historic  period 
style  is  followed.  The  same  is  true  of  radiators 
and  all  other  archite(5tural  appliances. 

There  are  in  the  market  a  number  of  cheap 
materials  for  covering  interior  walls,  of  which 
Beaver  board  is  one.  This  is  a  strong,  thin  ma- 
terial made  of  fibre,  and  is  nailed  direcftly  to  the 
wood  studding  of  the  partition  walls.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  cover  the  joints  where  pieces  of  beaver 
board  meet,  with  wood  strips,  thereby  forming 
panels  about  thirty  inches  wide.  Beaver  board 
may  be  painted  or  tinted  any  color.  A  cheap 
method  of  finishing  interior  walls  and  ceilings  is 
by  boarding  them  over,  stretching  cheesecloth 
or  muslin  and    applying   the   wallpaper  to  the 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

cloth.  The  paper  usually  sags  or  tears  and  is 
thoroughly  unsatisfacflory  after  a  very  short 
period  of  use. 

The  Living  Rooms  of  a  House. — Rooms  oc- 
cupied a  great  deal  should  be  above  all  restful. 
Materials  used  for  treatment  are  usually  deter- 
mined by  cost,  but  a  very  humble  room  may 
have  the  quality  of  restfulness,  which  an  elab- 
orate room  may  not.  In  fac5t,  when  cost  is  not 
an  important  consideration,  the  tendency  is  to 
overdo,  and  thereby  destroy  effe(5ls  which  might 
have  been  pleasing. 

To  secure  restfulness  other  considerations  than 
decoration  are  involved,  chief  of  which  are  the 
design  of  the  room  itself,  relative  to  doors,  win- 
dows and  architecflural  features,  and  style  and 
arrangement  of  furnishings.  Colors  used  on 
surfaces  should  not  be  vivid,  or  even  bright,  but 
dull  and  neutral.  Old  ivory  or  cream  white 
enamel  of  semi-dull  finish  used  on  the  woodwork, 
oatmeal  paper  of  light  brown  on  the  walls,  light 
buff  paper  on  the  ceiling,  and  any  good  flooring 
with,  perhaps.  Oriental  rugs,  should,  with  proper 
furnishings  carrying  out  the  color  scheme,  pro- 
duce a  harmonious  and  restful  interior.  Har- 
mony of  color  as  a  study  develops  good  taste  in 
house  decoration. 

In  following  out  color  schemes,  for  decorating 
and  furnishing  living  rooms,  it  Is  not  well  to 
slavishly  hold  to  the  color  and  tones  of  the 
scheme.  If  this  is  done,  the  effecft  will  be  mo- 
notonous, which  is  not  restful.  There  should  be 
judicious  departures  in  color,  chiefly  in  the  fur- 
nishings, and  especially  in  certain  archite(5lural 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

features  such  as  fireplaces,  floors,  and  orna- 
mental glass  windows.  As  a  rule  the  gradation 
of  color  should  be  such  that  the  ceiling  is  light, 
the  frieze  less  light,  the  wall  and  wainscoting 
darker,  and  the  floor  darkest.  This  principle  is 
worthy  of  careful  notice,  but  exceptions  are  pos- 
sible. A  floor  may  be  of  very  light  wood,  while 
the  gradation  of  color  starts  dark  at  the  base  of 
the  wall. 

In  any  composition  or  decorative  scheme,  a 
dash  of  color  is  a  welcome  relief  in  holding  the 
attention  for  a  moment. 

Bedrooms. — ^Treatments  for  bedrooms  should 
have  the  quality  of  freshness  regardless  of  the 
color  scheme  employed.  While  women  usually 
prefer  white,  pink,  blue  or  yellow  rooms,  men 
generally  prefer  brown,  gray  or  green.  Any 
color  scheme  that  is  not  disturbing  and  that 
does  not  take  on  a  dingy  air  may  be  satisfa(5lorily 
developed.  Wallpaper  as  a  cover  for  plaster 
surfaces  is  used  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
materials  in  bedrooms.  Paper  is  readily  re- 
moved and  replaced  when  no  longer  bright  and 
clean.  In  repapering  it -is  always  advisable  to 
take  the  old  paper  oflF,  not  only  because  the  new 
fits  better,  but  because  it  is  a  more  sanitary 
method.  On  sanitary  grounds  the  painting  of 
bedroom  walls  is  preferable  to  papering. 

Woodwork  of  bedrooms  may  well  be  white  or 
cream  in  color,  firstly  because  it  is  neat,  fresh 
and  easily  washed,  and  secondly  because  any 
bedroom  set  of  furniture  will  conform  to  it.  A 
very  handsome  treatment  for  a  bedroom  is  to 
make  the  woodwork  exadlly  like  the  bedroom 

213 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

set,  of  maple,  walnut,  mahogany,  or  any  hard 
wood.  Maple  flooring  is  very  satisfadlory  for 
bedrooms. 

For  inexpensive  treatments,  white  paint  may 
be  used  on  the  wood  trim,  and  gray  paint 
on  the  floor.  Sometimes  matting  over  a  com- 
mon floor  proves  very  satisfa(5lory.  In  any 
treatment,  the  quality  of  freshness  is  the  es- 
sential. 

Kitchen  Treatments. — Since  in  a  kitchen 
cleanliness  is  of  first  importance,  the  treatment 
of  materials  should  suggest  it,  and  decoration 
need  not  be  neglecfled.  Rather  than  to  use 
materials  and  colors  that  do  not  show  dirt,  it  is 
far  better  to  have  all  surfaces  so  treated  that 
dust  and  dirt  will  show,  but  will  be  easy  to 
remove.  Here  glazed  or  glossy  finishes,  or  semi- 
glazed,  which  is  the  same  as  semi-dull,  are  de- 
sirable. Plaster  may  be  given  a  slick,  steam- 
proof  varnish  or  paint,  and  the  wood  given  an 
enamel  finish.  Wallpapers  having  a  glazed  sur- 
face are  in  common  use,  and  if  of  good  quality 
are  satisfa(5lory.  In  regard  to  the  woodwork  in 
kitchens,  the  details  should  be  such  as  to  be 
most  sanitary.  There  should  be  no  crevices  or 
angles  not  easily  reached  with  ordinary  cleaning 
apparatus.  Severity  of  design  is  becoming  to 
the  nature  of  the  kitchen.  Simple  wainscotings 
are  very  serviceable  and  attracftive,  and  may  be 
counter  height,  thereby  forming  a  continuous 
line  around  the  room.  Incidentally,  counters 
and  other  surfaces  in  acflual  use  should  not  be 
treated  with  paint,  varnish  or  any  other  ma- 
terial except  oil.     However,  such  working  sur- 

214 


INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SURFACES 

faces  may  be  covered  with  a  matting  of  rubber 
or  oilcloth. 

Tile  work  in  kitchens  is  highly  serviceable, 
wainscotings,  counters,  facings  for  built-in  ranges 
and  floors  being  the  chief  parts  construcfted  of 
this  material.  The  main  objecflion  to  tile  floors 
is  their  coldness,  and  the  discomfort  experienced 
by  some  who  use  them  many  hours  a  day.  No 
wood  floor  or  finish  for  wood  floor  in  the  kitchen 
may  be  relied  upon  to  give  permanent  satis- 
facfiion,  on  account  of  the  abuse  that  the  floor 
is  subjedled  to.  Some  varnishes  will  last  a  while, 
but  will  be  scraped  and  scrubbed  away,  and  a 
new  coat  be  made  necessary.  EventuaFy  the 
floor  will  be  streaked  and  spotted,  and  also  worn 
and  uneven  where  footsteps  continually  mar  it. 
Perhaps  a  floor  left  in  its  natural  condition  and 
oiled  is  better  than  a  varnished  or  painted  sur- 
face. Constant  scouring  is  then  necessary  to 
keep  it  in  good  condition.  A  hardwood  floor  of 
oak  or  maple  is  best,  if  tile  cannot  be  afforded. 
A  cheap  wood  floor  may  be  made  very  service- 
able by  laying  upon  it  oilcloth  or  linoleum. 
Linoleum  is  especially  good,  but  will  not  wear 
well  unless  the  wood  floor  below  is  made  per- 
fecftly  smooth,  either  by  dressing  down  or  cover- 
ing over  with  paper,  cloth  or  other  material. 
A  very  good  material  for  kitchen  floors  is  a 
patent  substance  similar  to  asphalt,  which  has 
the  appearance  of  tile,  but  is  not  so  hard. 

Color  in  a  kitchen  should  be  such  as  to  suggest 
perfe(ft  sanitation.  The  best  colors  are  white 
and  blue,  but  with  white  or  cream  may  be  used 
green,  brown,  gray  or  other  color.     Colors  may 

215 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

appear  in  tile  borders,  linoleum,  wallpaper, 
painted  surfaces  and  in  simple  hangings.  The 
room  should  be  bright  and  pleasant,  but  not 
cluttered.  Extra  large  kitchens  in  farmhouses 
and  elsewhere  should  have  more  color  than 
small  ones. 

Bathroom  Treatments. — Surface  treatments 
for  bathrooms  may  be  much  the  same  as  those 
for  kitchens.  Waterproof  materials  are  prac- 
tically essential,  where  water  and  steam  are  so 
prevalent. 

Porch  Treatments. — Porches  are  really  ex- 
terior features,  and  should  be  treated  much  the 
same  as  other  parts  of  the  exterior.  These 
decorative  treatments  depend  chiefly  upon  the 
materials  used.  Light-colored  paints  and  stains 
generally  look  better  than  dark.  Masonry 
should  not  be  painted  under  any  circumstances, 
unless  as  a  preservative  measure.  Porch  floors 
of  wood  should  receive  several  coats  of  exterior 
floor  paint  of  neutral  color,  while  the  ceilings 
should  be  painted  white  or  buff.  It  may  be  here 
stated  that  more  than  two  colors  of  paint  on  a 
frame  house  should  not  be  used,  except  perhaps 
in  very  limited  quantities.  The  main  color 
should  cover  the  body  of  the  house,  while  the 
other  should  serve  only  as  a  trim  color.  Al- 
ternate color  effedts  should  never  be  used. 


216 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  the  main  wall  of  a  familiar  living  room  and 
show  a  scheme  of  architedtural  treatment  and  decoration 
and  arrangement  of  pidtures.  Describe  each  material 
and  article  used. 

(2)  Make  a  design  or  scheme  of  treatment  for  a  nursery 
wall,  assuming  doors  and  windows  where  desired. 

(3)  Design  a  pair  of  unlike  strap  hinges  to  be  used  on  the 
main  entrance  door  of  an  English  cottage.  The  metal 
contemplated  for  use  is  wrought  iron. 

,  References 

Rolfe. — Interior  Decoration. 
Clifford. — Color  Values. 
Ward, — Color  Harmony  and  Contrast. 
Saylor. — Distinctive  Homes  of  Moderate  Cost. 
Eberlein  and  McClure. — House  Furnishing  and  Decora- 
tion. 

Parsons. — Interior  Decoration. 
Candee. — Decorative  Styles  and  Periods. 
Goodnow  and  Adams. — The  Honest  House. 
DeWolfe. — ^The  House  in  Good  Taste. 


217 


CHAPTER  XII.    HOUSE  FURNISHING 

ARRANGEMENT  of  Furniture.— Closely 
related  to  design  of  rooms  and  spac- 
ing of  openings  and  fixtures  is  ar- 
rangement of  household  articles.  The 
principles  of  composition  in  general  may  be 
applied  to  these.  In  all  arrangements  it  is 
essential  to  obtain  balance,  unity  and  simplicity. 
It  is  good  pracflice  to  study  an  arrangement  of  a 
room  by  means  of  a  sketch  or  drawing  made 
to  a  certain  scale.  In  this  way  it  will  readily 
be  seen  that  only  important  units  or  articles 
employed  in  furnishing  have  a  place,  and  that 
riffraff  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  altogether 
undesirable.  Before  buying  new  household 
equipment,  a  drawing  is  almost  essential,  in 
that  it  plainly  shows  the  number  and  size  of 
necessary  articles. 

In  the  arrangement  of  furniture  in  a  room  it 
often  happens  that  most  of  the  pieces  are  al- 
ready on  hand,  and  must  be  adapted  for  use. 
Rooms  that  are  symmetrical  in  plan,  that  is, 
rooms  which  have  the  main  features  in  the  centre 
of  the  various  sides,  are  far  more  easily  arranged 
than  rooms  of  unsymmetrical  design.  This 
accounts  for  the  difficulty  in  placing  furniture 
in  the  rooms  of  a  great  many  houses,  it  being 
difficult  to  obtain  balance  on  account  of  the 
lack  of  that  element  in  the  room  itself.  If 
built-in  parts  of  the  room  are  not  symmetrically 
placed,  then  it  is  of  course  difficult  to  locate 
furniture  relative  to  those  room  features.  Space 
should  be  so  used  that  it  is  not  wasted.  As 
much  space  as  possible  should  be  left  "  in  the 

218 


HOUSE  FURNISHING 

clear,"  that  Is,  as  much  floor  space  as  possible 
should  be  left  unoccupied.  It  is  very  important 
that  circulation  or  means  of  traversing  the  room 
be  provided  by  allowing  free  passage  from  door 
to  door.  Chairs,  tables  and  other  pieces  of 
furniture  should  be  set  where  most  used,  so  as 
to  be  in  a  state  of  readiness,  without  more  shift- 
"ng  than  absolutely  necessary.  Reading  table, 
lamp,  magazines,  and  easy  chairs  should  be 
placed  in  the  proper  relation  one  with  another 
for  instant  use  rather  than  distributed  here  and 
there  to  form  a  pleasing  arrangement  regardless 
of  acftual  use.  By  placing  the  large  pieces  of 
furniture  on  the  main  axes  of  the  room,  the 
element  of  balance  is  obtained.  For  instance, 
in  a  symmetrical  living  room  a  large  table  may 
be  set  in  the  centre,  midway  between  a  fire- 
place and  a  large  window,  thereby  being  on  an 
axis.  Furniture  should  not  be  set  diagonally, 
as  a  rule,  but  in  straight  lines  with  the  walls. 
The  same  is  true  of  rugs.  Pi(5lures  on  a  wall 
should  be  hung  in  straight  lines  pracftically 
level  with  the  eye,  rather  than  staggered  up  and 
down  or  hung  in  a  diagonal  row.  Furniture 
itself  having  straight  lines  rather  than  diagonal 
lines  is  better.  In  the  arrangement  of  a  room  the 
design,  the  size  and  the  color  of  the  various 
articles  should  be  considered  and  consequently 
placed  so  that  adjacent  articles  are  in  harmony. 
It  is  well  to  cluster  Or  group  like  pieces  of  furni- 
ture in  a  certain  part  of  the  room. 

There  are  two  distincft  methods  of  arrange- 
ment which  may  be  employed  in  a  living  room. 
One  may  be  called  a  winter  arrangement,  and 

219 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  other  a  summer  arrangement.  In  the  former, 
large  pieces  of  furniture  may  be  grouped  in  the 
centre  of  the  room,  on  a  large  rug,  perhaps  in 
front  of  the  fireplace.  Here  a  davenport  may 
face  the  hearth  with  a  table  immediately  be- 
hind it,  while  three  or  four  easy  chairs  may  be 
set  immediately  adjacent  to  it,  forming  a  group 
of  five  large  pieces  of  furniture.  The  outside 
edge  of  the  room  is  then  left  pradlically  clear, 
except  for  the  smaller  articles.  In  the  summer 
arrangement  the  centre  part  of  the.  room  is 
left  clear,  giving  the  impression  of  roominess, 
and  consequently  coolness.  Articles  of  furni- 
ture may  be  grouped  around  the  walls,  the  large 
pieces  occupying  positions  where  space  seems 
correspondingly  large.  The  davenport  may  be 
set  under  a  group  of  windows  or  even  in  front 
of  the  fireplace,  while  the  reading  table  may  be 
removed  to  a  rather  inconspicuous  position. 
The  winter  arrangement  has  the  appearance  of 
being  snug,  while  the  summer  arrangement  has 
the  appearance  of  being  roomy.  (See  Plate  44.) 
Pictures. — ^The  use  of  pidlures  is  twofold, 
one  being  for  the  purpose  of  display,  and  the 
other  for  the  covering  of  wall  surface.  Assum- 
ing that  only  good  picflures,  and  not  enlarged 
photographic  portraits  and  cheap  prints  are  to 
be  hung  on  a  wall,  the  arrangement  should  be 
such  that  the  spacing,  regardless  of  the  subjecft 
of  the  picfture,  is  pleasing,  and  that  the  pidlures 
themselves  be  harmonious  one  with  another  and 
pleasing  in  general.  As  stated  before,  the  proper 
height  of  pi(ftures  above  the  floor  is  the  height 
of  the  eye,  or  a  little  more.     In  this  last  con- 


••  5  i  J  X  %1  -  »  z  <J  C  "^ 


Plate  44 
Diagrams  Showing  Arrangements 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

sideration  there  may  be  exceptions,  but  not  for 
the  picfture  of  ordinary  size.  Very  large  or 
very  small  picftures  may  be  arranged  especially. 
To  keep  a  room  from  having  a  stiff  appearance, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  a  departure  from  the 
symmetrical  and  formal.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  little  things  which  may  be  on  hand 
and  which  are  probably  of  peculiar  personal 
interest.  There  should  not  be  an  abundance  of 
such  small  picftures  and  knickknacks,  no  mat- 
ter how  valuable  they  are  from  any  standpoint. 

Miscellaneous  Articles. — ^The  arrangement  of 
articles  on  the  table  is  important  in  the  matter 
of  the  general  effe(5l  of  the  room.  It  may  be 
said  that  as  few  articles  as  possible  on  any  table 
should  be  employed,  and  these  should  preferably 
be  placed  with  the  lines  of  the  table  rather  than 
diagonally  or  irregularly.  The  articles  employed 
for  table  use  are  so  varied  that  no  definite  sugr 
gestions  for  table  arrangements  may  be  given, 
except  for  the  dining  room  table.  Here  a  linen 
centrepiece  having  the  same  general  form  as  the 
table  itself  may  be  employed,  with  a  single 
article  such  as  a  candelabrum,  lamp  or  vase  of 
flowers  upon  it.  In  the  arrangement  of  other 
cloths  upon  the  dining  table,  it  is  well  to  keep 
them  as  simple  as  possible,  and  have  them  con- 
form to  the  lines  of  the  table  itself.  The  entire 
equipment  of  the  dining  room  should  be  simple 
and  the  arrangement  formal  and  positive. 

Mantelpieces,  shelves  and  pedestals  should 
never  be  cluttered  with  small  articles  of  decora- 
tion. It  is  far  better  to  place  perhaps  only  one 
large  ornament  in  the  centre,  with  a  minor  orna- 


HOUSE  FURNISHING 

ment  on  each  side,  and  consider  the  arrangement 
complete.  For  pedestals,  of  course,  only  one 
article  is  possible.  Shelves  which  are  to  contain 
books,  or  kitchen  shelves  which  are  to  contain 
jars,  cans  and  other  kitchen  articles,  should  be 
arranged  systematically  according  to  use.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  harmony  of  line  is  so 
agreeable  with  utility  that  the  two  go  hand  in 
hand,  and  may  be  called  system.  For  instance, 
a  pantry  shelf  which  is  to  accommodate  a  number 
of  jars  will  look  best  and  be  most  convenient 
when  the  large  jars  are  placed  in  a  row  behind, 
and  the  small  jars  in  a  row  in  front.  This 
principle  may  be  applied  throughout  shelf  ar- 
rangements of  the  house.  Books  should  not  be 
arranged  according  to  size  and  color,  but  ac- 
cording to  subjecft-matter.  However,  when 
possible  and  compatible  with  subjedl-matter, 
the  size  and  color  may  be  considered. 

Flowers. — Flowers  may  be  so  arranged  as  to 
accent  their  own  beauty,  and  form  an  agree- 
able spot  in  an  otherwise  dull  room.  A  single 
rose  on  a  long  stem  set  in  a  tall  glass  vase,  per- 
haps on  a  pedestal,  gives  an  unquestionable  ver- 
tical effecft  which  while  not  remarked  by  all 
would  be  felt  by  all.  This  effecft  would  be 
further  emphasized  by  giving  the  whole  a  back- 
ground of  vertical  lines,  such  as  upright  wood 
paneling  or  striped  wallpaper.  Not  only  will  an 
American  Beauty  rose,  but  also  long-stemmed 
lilies  or  irises  produce  a  pleasing  vertical  effecft, 
if  properly  arranged.  Short-stemmed  flowers 
like  nasturtiums,  growing  in  a  low  mass,  suggest 
a   like   arrangement   in   vases,    consequently   a 

223 


DOMESirC  ARCHITECTURE 

bowl  should  be  employed  for  them,  set  where 
the  mass  is  most  effecftive.  Vines  that  grow 
downward  should  always  be  set  in  such  a  manner 
that  there  is  full  opportunity  for  them  to  hang, 
while  vines  that  grow  upward  should  be  provided 
with  a  little  trellis  or  small  pole.  Some  flowers 
look  best  when  forming  a  horizontal  effecft  or  a 
series,  perhaps  high  in  the  centre  or  high  at  the 
ends.  Potted  geraniums  are  a  sample  of  this 
type  of  flower.  The  study  of  the  arrangement 
of  flowers  is  very  interesting,  and  would  be  of 
permanent  and  pra(5lical  use  to  all.  Perhaps  in 
most  people  the  aesthetic  sense  really  guides  in 
the  matter  of  arrangements  of  any  kind,  but  the 
application  of  known  principles  is  always  helpful. 
(See  Plate  44.) 

Furniture. — In  the  seledlion  of  furniture  for  a 
house,  appropriateness  is  the  chief  governing 
fa(5lor.  Appropriateness  means  not  only  the 
use  to  which  the  article  is  to  be  put,  but  the  ap- 
pearance of  it  in  the  place  for  which  it  is  intended. 
It  is  well  to  avoid  pretentious  furniture  and 
curios,  and  to  get  real  rather  than  imitation 
things.  Imitation  furniture  'will  eventually 
reveal  itself,  so  that  a  pine  table  is  better  a 
pine  table  in  the  beginning  than  an  imitation 
mahogany.  PracTtically  every  material  has  a 
worth  or  a  use  of  some  kind,  and  it  is  best 
to  have  it  stand  on  its  own  merits  from  the 
beginning. 

Since  furniture  is  used  by  all,  the  general 
characfteristics  of  it  are  known.  Willow,  reed, 
upholstered  and  other  kinds  of  furniture  each 
have  a  place.     Certain  types  of  furniture  which 

224 


HOUSE  FURNISHING 

may  be  called  period  are  in  vogue  in  the  United 
States,  being  originals  or  copies  of  models  made 
by  English  chairmakers.  The  three  best  known 
English  chairmakers  of  the  eighteenth  century 
were  Chippendale,  Hepplewhite  and  Sheraton, 
pra(flicing  in  the  order  named.  Chippendale 
followed  the  French  method  of  making  furni- 
ture, using  a  French  scroll  for  the  foot,  a  bow 
at  the  top  of  the  back,  and  elaborate  carv- 
ings throughout.  The  proportion  of  his  chairs 
was  very  good.  Hepplewhite  made  chairs  much 
lighter  in  weight  than  did  Chippendale.  He 
used  both  carvings  and  inlaying,  and  finished 
the  chair  backs  with  paint  or  Japanned  work. 
Next  came  Sheraton,  who  strengthened  the  light 
chairs  of  Hepplewhite  and  made  the  back  redlan- 
gular  in  shape.  Models  of  these  and  many  other 
types  of  furniture  may  be  seen  in  numerous 
places,  and  by  the  use  of  texts  the  subjecfl  given 
thorough  study.  Another  type  of  chair  that 
appeared  in  this  country  about  1730  is  the  Wind- 
sor chair,  which  is  far  more  simple  than  the 
previous  types.  The  Windsor  chairs  are  made 
using  round  turned  legs  and  spindles  in  the  back. 
Originally  Windsor  chairs  were  painted  green. 
The  models  vary  to  quite  an  extent. 

New  types  of  chairs  are  being  invented  and 
manufa(5lured  continually.  Quite  recently  the 
type  of  furniture  called  "Mission"  appeared. 
It  is  very  heavy  and  square  in  construcftion, — 
perhaps  too  much  so  for  ordinary  house  use. 
Any  piece  of  furniture  that  is  of  good  design 
and  honest  construcflion  may  be  employed  where 
there  is  a  place  for  it.    It  is  not  necessary  that  a 

225 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

certain  kind  of  furniture  be  used  in  a  certain 
place. 

Hangings. — Hangings  or  draperies  as  a  part 
of  the  furnishings  are  more  important  in  decora- 
tion than  is  generally  conceded.  In  most  cases 
the  hangings  should  follow  the  general  color 
scheme,  but  to  avoid  monotony  floral  designs, 
stripes,  and  geometrical  patterns  may  be  em- 
ployed. Sometimes  sharp  contrasts  between 
light  curtains  and  overhangs  give  good  results, 
especially  when  the  light  curtain  is  similar  in 
color  to  the  wall  surface.  The  funcftion  of  cur- 
tains is  to  soften  the  architecftural  lines  of  the 
room,  and  thereby  remove  the  severity  of  the 
aspedl.  Curtains  should  not  cut  off  light  and 
air  to  an  appreciable  extent,  and  should  not 
be  of  such  material  as  to  catch  dust  and  retain 
odors.  Pra(5lically  any  material  that  does  not 
fade  may  be  employed  in  one  way  or  another 
for  curtains  of  various  rooms.  However,  certain 
well  known  kinds  of  goods  are  generally  em- 
ployed to  meet  the  requirements.  Texture  and 
quality  of  draperies  is  important  in  the  selecftion 
of  them. 

Floor  Coverings. — For  floor  coverings,  mat- 
tings, carpets,  rugs  and  linoleum  are  employed. 
Each  has  its  place,  but  the  selecflion  of  patterns 
and  colors  is  important.  Bold  designs  such  as 
large  floral  patterns  in  high  colors  should  be 
avoided.  Mellow  tones  of  rather  solid  color  are 
best.  Oriental  rugs  especially  have  these  char- 
acfleristics,  and  have  also  the  quality  of  wear. 
Other  rugs,  manufacftured  in  this  country,  have 
been  found  to  be  very  desirable  in  every  respecft. 

226 


HOUSE  FURNISHING 

Throughout  the  decoration  and  furnishing  of 
the  interior  of  a  house,  the  great  thing  to  be 
attained  is  harmony  in  the  broad  sense  of  the 
term.  Laying  aside  all  rules  and  conventions  we 
must  depend  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  taste 
and  inherent  culture  for  producing  an  effecft 
pleasing  to  ourselves  and  to  others.  All  parts 
must  be  reduced  to  the  absolutely  simple  in  the 
process  of  home  furnishing. 


227 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  a  plan  of  a  familiar  living  room  showing  ar- 
chitecftural  features  and  indicate  an  arrangement  for  a 
new  and  complete  set  of  furniture  for  that  particular 
room.    Scale  }i"=i'  o." 

(2)  Draw  a  plan  of  a  dining  room,  show  an  arrangement 
of  equipment  and  describe  each  article  or  set  of  articles. 

(3)  Make  a  sketch  of  a  simple  mantlepiece  showing  an 
arrangement  of  articles  for  decorative  and  useful  purposes. 

References 

Rolfe. — Interior  Decoration. 

Policy. — Domestic  Architecfture,  Furniture  and  Or- 
nament of  England  from  the  Fourteenth  to  the  Eighteenth 
Century. 

Weaver. — ^The  House  and  Its  Equipment. 

Clifford. — Period  Furnishings. 

Eberlein  and  McClure. — ^The  Pracftical  Book  of  Period 
Furniture. 

Sell. — Good  Taste  in  Home  Furnishing. 


228 


CHAPTER  XIII.    APPLIANCES 

POWER. — Houses,  especially  isolated  es- 
tablishments, may  well  be  provided  with 
power  for  operating  house  and  farm  ma- 
chinery. The  energy  for  this  purpose 
may  be  provided  by  engines,  water  wheels,  or 
windmills.  The  common  method  of  obtaining 
power  is  by  the  use  of  a  gasoline  engine,  which 
may  be  either  air  or  water-cooled,  and  is  an 
economical  machine.  Kerosene  and  hot  air 
engines  are  also  in  use.  On  estates  where  a 
good  flow  of  water  is  available,  water  wheels 
may  be  construdled,  forming  a  very  cheap  and 
permanent  source  of  energy.  In  the  past,  wind- 
mills have  been  very  serviceable  and  of  low  cost, 
and  may  still  be  used. 

Dynamo  elec5lric  machines  for  supplying  elec- 
trical power  require  one  of  the  previously  named 
types  of  power  to  operate  them.  These  machines 
are  of  two  general  types;  one  for  generating  an 
ele(5lrical  current,  called  a  generator,  and  the 
other  for  converting  elecftrical  energy  into  me- 
chanical energy  and  thereby  operating  machin- 
ery, called  a  motor.  Dynamo  elecftric  machines 
are  used  also  for  changing  the  voltage  of  currents 
of  ele(5lricity,  converting  one  voltage  into  a 
higher  or  lower  voltage.  These  are  called  con- 
verters and  transformers.  Still  another  power, 
especially  for  elecftric  current,  is  obtained  by  the 
use  of  storage  batteries,  but  these  are  economical 
only  for  small  consumptions  of  elecftric  energy. 

House  Electric  Plants. — For  operating  house 
machines,  and  for  illumination,  the  house  elec- 
tric plant  is  the  most  convenient,  and  although 

229 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  first  cost  may  be  considerable,  the  expense 
of  operating  is  slight,  especially  if  the  source  of 
power  is  not  too  costly.  House  elecflric  plants 
may  be  used  for  operating  kitchen  ranges, 
laundry  machines,  churns,  separators,  and  other 
machines,  and  if  used  for  one  or  two  devices 
may  be  used  for  pra(flically  every  device  with- 
out much  additional  cost.  The  economic  value 
of  such  plants  lies  in  the  general  utility  of  them, 
and  unless  applied  to  pra(5lically  all  machines  of 
the  establishment,  both  indoor  and  out,  much 
of  their  advantage  may  be  lost.  Besides  the 
original  power  plant,  a  generator  and  motor  are 
necessary  for  performing  all  of  the  funcftions  of 
the  elecftric  plant.  Small  elecftric  light  plants 
will  furnish  current  for  perhaps  a  hundred  lights 
at  a  low  voltage,  and  in  general  use  need  be 
operated  for  only  a  short  time  each  day,  because 
a  storage  battery  is  used  to  collecft  energy  which 
is  given  out  as  required.  Both  light  and  power 
may  be  supplied  from  the  storage  battery  or 
direcft  from  the  dynamo  at  the  same  time.  The 
entire  operation  of  a  house  elecftric  plant  is 
automatic,  except  for  the  operation  of  the  engine 
itself. 

Acetylene  Gas  Plant. — ^Acetylene  gas  has 
been  found  to  be  very  efficient  for  lighting 
isolated  dwellings,  and  can  also  be  made  very 
safe.  The  installation  is  placed  in  the  basement 
of  the  building,  and  runs  automatically.  The 
machine  consists  of  a  gas  generator  and  a  gas 
tank  to  hold  the  gas  supply.  The  generator  is  a 
steel  tank  holding  water,  into  which  crystals  of 
carbide  are  slowly  dropped,  which  when  coming 

230 


APPLIANCES 

into  contadl  with  the  water,  form  the  gas.  The 
feed  of  carbide  is  regulated  by  a  mechanism 
independent  of  the  pressure  of  the  gas  generator. 
In  order  that  a  machine  may  not  generate  gas 
so  excessively  that  an  explosion  would  occur, 
a  safety  valve  allows  the  surplus  gas  to  escape 
outside  of  the  building  through  a  blow-off  pipe. 
The  regulation  is  provided  by  an  apparatus 
which  starts  the  generating  of  gas  so  soon  as  a 
jet  is  lighted.  The  whole  machine  is  so  regulated 
as  to  produce  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  by 
burning.  The  cost  of  lighting  an  average  house 
for  an  entire  year  is  not  more  than  twenty 
dollars.  The  original  cost  of  an  acetylene  gas 
plant  is  also  reasonable. 

Water  Supply. — ^The  supply  of  water  for  a 
country  place  is  often  a  serious  problem.  If  a 
natural  supply  of  water  at  a  considerable  eleva- 
tion above  the  house  is  available,  it  is  well  to 
provide  a  reservoir  from  which  water  may  be 
piped  to  a  pressure  tank  in  the  attic  of  the  dwell- 
ing. This  condition,  however,  is  not  common,  so 
that  it  is  necessary,  if  a  convenient  supply  of 
water  is  desired,  to  install  a  special  apparatus. 
Again  it  is  necessary  to  depend  upon  an  engine 
water  wheel  or  windmill,  to  fill  the  pressure  tank 
with  a  constant  water  supply.  Sometimes  this 
is  done  by  means  of  pumping  direcflly  into  the 
attic  tank.  A  better  method  is  to  install  a 
compression  tank  or  air  compresser  in  the  base- 
ment of  the  dwelling,  or  below  the  grade  outside 
of  the  building,  which  forces  water  throughout 
the  pipes  without  the  use  of  other  pressure. 

A  compression  tank  is  a  cylindrical  steel  tank 
231 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

with  a  hand  or  power  pump  attached,  drawing 
water  from  the  source  into  the  air-tight  enclosure. 
By  continuous  pumping  of  water,  the  air  at  one 
end  of  the  tank  is  compressed,  which  produces  a 
constant  pressure  throughout  the  system  of 
piping  to  the  fixtures.  By  opening  a  faucet  the 
compressed  air  is  relieved,  producing  a  strong 
current  or  flow  of  water.  When  the  tank  is  at 
high  pressure  the  current  is  of  course  much 
stronger  than  when  it  is  at  low.  It  is  necessary 
occasionally,  perhaps  daily,  to  pump  the  com- 
pression tank  full  of  water.  When  water  is  not 
drawn  from  the  faucet,  the  air  pressure  inside 
of  the  compression  tank  is  reduced  by  reason 
of  the  water  taking  up  some  of  the  air.  To 
obviate  this  difiiculty,  an  air  valve  is  used  in 
connedlion  with  the  system. 

Still  another  method  of  supplying  water  to  an 
establishment  is  by  the  use  of  an  air  compressor. 
By  this  machine,  air  is  highly  compressed  and 
thereby  forced  through  a  pipe  to  an  apparatus 
in  the  well,  which  as  long  as  the  air  pressure  is 
sufficient  inje(fts  a  supply  of  water  into  a  large 
pipe  from  which  all  fixtures  on  the  premises  may 
be  supplied  with  a  constant  flow. 

Hot  Water  Supply. — ^The  most  common  de- 
vice, besides  the  regular  hot  water  tank  and 
coils,  for  supplying  hot  water  to  a  residence, 
is  the  gas  heater.  Gas  heaters  are  of  the  ordi- 
nary type,  instantaneous  or  automatic  and  con- 
stant. For  providing  hot  water  periodically  a 
gas  flame  may  be  applied  to  a  small  tank  of 
water  which  is  outside  of  the  large  supply  tank, 
and  by  a  proper  system  of  piping  a  ready  supply 

232 


APPLIANCES 

of  hot  water  may  be  provided.  In  instantaneous 
gas  heaters  the  cold  water  flows  through  a  coil 
of  pipe  of  condudlive  quality  against  which  a 
blue  gas  flame  is  applied.  The  water  passing 
through  this  coil  becomes  hot  by  the  time  it 
reaches  the  far  end,  where  it  may  be  drawn  off 
through  a  faucet.  For  a  gas  heater  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  a  pipe  for  carrying  off  gases  of  com- 
bustion, which  may  be  poisonous.  These  heaters 
are  supposed  to  be  used  for  a  few  minutes  at  a 
time  only,  and  not  for  providing  a  constant 
supply  of  hot  water. 

Automatic  gas  heaters  have  been  invented 
which  require  a  small  constant  flame  of  gas. 
They  are  usually  so  arranged  that  the  opening 
of  a  faucet  starts  the  gas  burner  and  consequently 
keeps  up  the  supply.  The  apparatus  consists 
of  a  coil  of  pipe  for  the  heating  of  water  under 
which  the  gas  burners  are  placed.  A  hot  water 
faucet  being  turned  on  draws  water  from  this  coil 
which  when  drawn  also  becomes  heated  by  the 
automatic  turning  on  of  the  gas  burner.  No 
supply  tank  is  required.  To  ignite  the  gas  at 
the  heating  coil,  a  pilot  light  is  left  constantly 
burning.  The  cost  of  operation  is  rather  high 
when  a  large  amount  of  hot  water  is  used,  or 
when  the  gas  rate  itself  is  high. 

Vacuum  Cleaners. — ^Vacuum  cleaners  are  of 
several  types.  The  common  ones  are  the  in- 
stalled machine,  consisting  of  a  vacuum  pump 
in  the  basement  with  a  set  of  pipes  leading  to  it 
and  a  sweeper  to  be  operated  in  the  rooms  of 
the  dwelling;  and  a  small  portable  machine 
consisting  of  a  sucflion  pump  and  sweeper,  all 

233 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

operated  within  the  room,  being  connecfted  to  an 
eledlric  outlet.  In  any  vacuum  cleaner  the  mech- 
anism involved  is  a  vacuum  tank  which  by 
su<ftion  extracfts- small  particles  of  dust  from  the 
articles  cleaned.  The  portable  type  of  machine 
is  perhaps  the  most  pracftical,  and  not  expensive. 
Only  large  houses  really  need  an  installed  pipe 
system  of  vacuum  cleaning." 

Incinerators. — ^An  incinerator  is  a  device  for 
burning  rubbish  of  all  kinds.  They  are  especially 
desirable  for  consuming  the  dust  colledled  in 
the  tank  of  a  vacuum  cleaner,  since  other  dis- 
posal of  it  is  difficult.  A  rubbish  crematory 
or  incinerator  is  highly  efficient  for  burning  gar- 
bage, and  is  perhaps  the»most  sanitary  and  con- 
venient method  of  disposal  of  all  such  refuse. 
These  machines  may  be  set  up  on  the  floor  of 
the  basement,  or  may  be  set  into  the  wall  of  the 
kitchen  or  other  room.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary 
to  provide  for  them  a  draft  and  a  smoke  flue. 
The  necessary  heat  may  be  provided  by  the  use 
of  gas  or  elecftricity. 

Refrigerator  Plants. — For  large  houses  in  the 
country,  and  also  for  other  dwellings,  a  house 
refrigerating  system  has  come  to  be  an  economi- 
cal and  most  convenient  asset.  It  is  especially 
desirable  for  houses  where  ice  is  not  available. 
A  plant  of  this  kind  includes  a  refrigerating 
machine  and  a  cold  storage  chamber.  The  best 
machines  produce  cold  by  the  condensation  of 
ammonia  forced  through  coils  of  pipe,  but  some 
machines  use  brine  or  ammonia  brine  for  refriger- 
ation. It  is  of  course  necessary  in  all  these 
machines  to  provide  power  from  an  outer  source. 

234 


APPLIANCES 

House  refrigerators  may  be  so  placed  in  the 
dwelling  as  to  be  highly  convenient  by  setting 
the  compressor  and  eledlric  motor  in  the  base- 
ment, and  the  refrigerator  in  the  pantry  above. 
There  may  be  a  number  of  refrigerating  cham- 
bers, and  an  ice  making  compartment  in  con- 
nedlion  with  the  entire  apparatus.  A  refriger- 
ator may  be  so  small  as  to  be  placed  under  a 
pantry  counter.  In  all  refrigerators  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  have  several  distin(ft  compartments  in 
order  that  various  kinds  of  foods  may  each  have 
a  compartment  of  its  own. 

House  Telephones. — House  telephones  may  be 
arranged  in  a  number  of  systems,  including  from 
four  to  a  dozen  instruments.  The  ordinary 
system  provides  at  each  instrument  a  set  of 
buttons  which  when  one  is  pressed  gives  a  call 
to  any  desired  room.  All  that  is  required  for 
an  installation  of  this  kind  are  the  instruments, 
wire  and  batteries.  They  are  usually  inter- 
communicating, with  an  instrument  in  pradli- 
cally  every  room,  and  perhaps  in  the  garage. 

Dumb  Elevators  or  Lifts. — ^A  large  number  of 
archite(5lural  appliances,  such  as  the  wood  lift, 
dumb  waiter,  and  other  lifts,  are  simply  hand 
operated  elevators.  They  consist  of  a  shaft 
from  the  basement  to  a  room  above,  equipped 
with  slides  or  runners,  ropes  and  pulleys,  and  a 
conveyance  of  some  sort.  They  have  been 
found  especially  convenient  as  dumb  waiters 
for  carrying  dishes  from  a  basement  kitchen  to 
a  dining  room  above,  or  to  some  other  part  of 
the  house.  A  dumb  elevator  for  general  pur- 
poses,   such    as    carrying    furniture,    linen    and 

235 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

packages,  may  well  be  installed  in  any  two-story 
house  for  general  utilitarian  purposes. 

Laundry  Machines. — ^A  large  number  of  elec- 
trical machines  for  the  home  laundry  are  in 
the  market.  They  include  washing  machines, 
driers,  and  ironing  machines  of  various  sorts, 
modelled  after  the  highly  efficient  machines  of 
laundry  establishments,  but  made  in  small  size. 
Perhaps  the  best  type  of  washing  machine  is 
one  in  which  a  wringer  is  attached,  and  which 
washes  the  clothes  by  a  violent  rocking  back 
and  forth.  Some  machines  are  not  economical 
on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  process  on  the 
clothes  being  washed.  Laundry  clothes  driers 
may  be  set  up  in  the  basement  or  in  the  attic 
and  used  the  year  round.  The  drier  consists  of 
a  number  of  iron  compartments  containing  rods 
for  hanging  clothes.  The  compartments  may  be 
removed  separately  for  convenience  in  handling 
clothes.  Heat  for  drying  may  be  furnished  by 
a  stove  or  other  heat  placed  beside  the  drier. 
A  constant  current  of  heated  air  is  made  to  pass 
through  the  machine,  carrying  off  the  vapor 
from  the  clothes  through  pipes. 

Miscellaneous  Devices. — ^There  are  many  small 
devices  for  household  use  which  require  only 
hand  power  for  operation.  One  of  the  most 
convenient  is  a  small  crane  which  may  be  hung 
on  a  removable  bracket  outside  of  a  door 
on  a  stair  landing,  probably  next  to  the  drive- 
way. Here  trunks  and  furniture  may  readily 
be  hoisted  from  a  dray  onto  the  stair  landing 
and  taken  to  any  part  of  the  house  without 
undue  labor  and  destrucftion  of  finish  materials 

236 


APPLIANCES 

in  the  house.  Cranes  are  desirable  on  the  back 
porch  or  over  a  cellarway  for  lifting  heavy  boxes 
and  barrels.  The  crane  may  consist  of  only 
ropes  and  pulleys  suspended  from  a  substantial 
bracket  or  beam  overhead. 

For  the  kitchen  a  number  of  devices  have  been 
found  convenient.  A  small  ventilated  cupboard 
may  be  set  on  brackets  in  the  open  kitchen 
window  occupying  the  place  of  the  screen,  and 
when  not  in  use  may  be  stored  in  a  closet.  The 
cupboard  should  have  doors  on  the  inside, 
through  which  the  contents  of  the  cupboard  may 
be  reached,  and  a  dust-proof  screen  on  the  out- 
side. A  box  set  in  the  wall  between  the  back 
porch  and  the  kitchen  for  holding  milk  bottles 
is  handy.  Such  a  box  should  be  self-locking; 
that  is,  milk,  when  placed  in  it  from  the  outside 
should  be  secure  except  from  the  door  on  the 
inside.  The  device  is  called  a  self-locking  box 
for  milk  bottles.  Clothes  driers  built  from  the 
kitchen  window  with  a  rotary  top  are  conven- 
ient. They  should  in  alj  cases  be  removable. 
Garbage  cans  with  lids  raised  by  a  lever  operated 
by  the  foot  have  been  found  satisfactory. 

A  very  useful  appliance  and  one  that  should 
be  incorporated  in  every  house  is  the  fuel  win- 
dow to  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  window 
in  the  fuel  room  of  the  basement.  On  account 
of  the  tendency  of  the  ordinary  window  frame 
to  become  battered  and  the  glass  of  the  sash 
broken,  the  fuel  window  is  desirable.  It  con- 
sists of  a  metal  frame  and  a  metal  hopper  which 
tilts  outward,  forming  a  pocket  or  a  slide  through 
which  wood  or  coal  may  be  passed.     The  slide 

237 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

from  the  window  may  be  continued  by  the  use 
of  a  long  metal  contrivance  which  carries  the 
fuel  well  inside  of  the  basement  wall. 

Strong  boxes  for  the  storage  of  silver  and  jew- 
elry and  even  valuable  papers  may  be  incor- 
porated in  the  masonry  walls  of  a  dwelling.  The 
best  location  for  such  a  secret  box  or  chamber  is 
in  the  wall  of  the  chimney,  inside  of  the  main 
walls  of  the  building.  Here  an  iron  receptacle 
may  be  built  in  with  the  bricks  of  the  wall,  made 
heat-proof  and  even  fire-proof  and  supplied  with 
a  lock  and  key  or  a  combination  lock.  In  case 
of  the  destrudiion  of  a  building  by  fire,  the  base 
of  the  chimney  usually  remains  standing,  and 
the  strong  box  within  the  masonry  should  be 
intacft.  All  iron  safes,  whether  small  or  large, 
should  be  supported  by  and  enclosed  within 
walls  of  brick,  stone  or  concrete  and  be  in- 
sulated by  means  of  an  air  space  and  also  by  the 
use  of  insulating  materials. 


238 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Draw  a  sketch  of  a  convenient  device  to  be  used  in 
the  house  outside  of  the  kitchen. 

(2)  Sketch  a  device  to  be  used  in  the  kitchen. 

(3)  Show  by  a  drawing  an  appliance  for  Hfting  heavy 
articles  from  a  truck  to  a  stair  landing  within  the  house. 
This  appliance  is  to  be  convenient  and  not  unsightly  and 
may  be  removable  in  part  or  in  whole. 

References 

Lynde. — Physics  of  the  Household. 
Kidder. — Architecfts'  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book. 
Harding  and  Willard. — Mechanical  Equipment  of  Build- 
ings, Vols.  H,  HI. 


239 


CHAPTER  XIV.    HEATING  AND  VENTI- 
LATION 

INTRODUCTION.— The  original  form  of 
heating  was  the  camp-fire,  laid  in  the  open. 
For  many  hundreds  of  years  the  open  fire 
continued  to  be  used  as  a  means  of  heat- 
ing but  was  laid  inside  of  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing, the  smoke  escaping  through  the  roof.  In 
medieval  castles  this  form  of  heating  was  in 
vogue,  up  to  perhaps  the  sixteenth  century 
when  the  open  fire  was  moved  to  a  niche  in 
the  wall  which  eventually  developed  into  the 
modern  fireplace  with  a  chimney.  For  several 
hundred  years  more  the  open  fireplace  remained 
the  sole  contrivance  for  heating,  but  eventually 
the  stove  was  invented  which  was  not  a  great 
departure  from  the  original  method.  The  fire 
was  simply  enclosed  within  a  metal  box  which 
tended  to  conserve  the  heat  and  distribute  it 
more  evenly.  Since  the  origin  of  the  stove, 
great  developments  have  been  made  in  the  way 
of  heating  and  ventilation  but  always  the  fire- 
place remains  in  great  favor. 

The  best  systems  of  heating  are  those  in 
which  ventilation  is  a  part  of  the  system,  that 
is  to  say,  the  a(flual  heating  requires  a  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air  to  pass  into  the  room  and 
out  again.  Of  the  systems  which  have  this 
chara(5leristic  the  first  is  the  fireplace  and  the 
last  is  an  elaborate  indirecft  method  of  steam 
heating,  employed  especially  in  schoolhouses, 
churches  and  theatres.  Of  the  other  kinds  of 
heating  which,  by  the  way,  are  commonly  used 
in  dwellings,  the  most  important  are  hot  air, 

240 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

direcft  steam  and  hot  water.  Each  has  a  place 
in  which  it  may  be  used  economically.  The 
principles  of  each  kind  of  heating  will  be  dis- 
cussed separately. 

Fireplaces. — On  account  of  the  cheerful  com- 
fort of  fireplaces  as  well  as  their  ventilating 
qualities,  they  not  only  have  always  held  a 
high  place  in  the  opinion  of  home  builders  but 
will  probably  continue  to  do  so  at  all  times. 
The  main  objecflions  to  them  are  the  amount 
of  labor  required  to  operate  them  and  their 
inadequacy  in  heating  large  rooms  during  cold 
weather.  In  combination  with  other  heating 
apparatus  they  are  invaluable  as  a  means  of 
warming  the  room  in  moderately  cold  weather 
and  in  keeping  the  room  constantly  in  a  state 
of  ventilation. 

Furnace  Heating. — For  the  small  residence  of 
perhaps  six  or  eight  rooms,  heating  by  means 
of  hot  air  is  probably  the  most  economical  and 
best.  Here  if  the  furnace  and  pipes  are  properly 
construcfted  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  warm 
air  is  entering  each  room  and  the  outgoing  air 
is  constantly  escaping  either  through  prepared 
ventilating  ducfts  or  by  leakage.  The  first  cost 
of  installation  is  very  small,  repairs  are  seldom 
necessary  and  operation  is  most  simple.  Wood, 
coal,  gas  or  oil  may  be  used  as  fuel.  Among  the 
common  faults  of  hot  air  furnaces  are  over- 
heating, imperfedl  distribution  of  heat  and 
vitiation  of  the  fresh  air  by  gas.  These  faults 
may  be  eliminated  by  skillful  installation  of  the 
apparatus. 

A  hot  air  furnace  consists  of  a  stove  or  heater 
241 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

in  a  brick  or  iron  case,  allowing  a  chamber  of 
air  between  the  two.  The  supply  of  fresh  air 
enters  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber  and  after 
passing  over  the  heated  surface  is  condu(fled 
by  means  of  metal  du(fts  to  the  various  rooms 
of  the  building.  The  mechanism  is  quite  simple. 
In  order  to  gain  the  greatest  efficiency  from  any 
furnace  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  properly  de- 
signed. Most  of  the  heaters  which  have  been 
in  the  market  for  a  number  of  years  are  reliable. 
Perhaps  the  heater  which  has  the  greatest 
radiating  surface  on  the  stove  or  firebox  relative 
to  the  size  of  the  air  chamber  will  give  off  the 
most  heat  for  the  amount  of  fuel  used.  Also 
the  draft  of  air  passing  through  the  firebox  to 
the  chimney  should  have  a  devious  route  in 
order  that  all  the  heat  possible,  carried  by  the 
fumes  of  combustion,  may  be  utilized  for  heating. 
As  a  means  of  conserving  heat  the  furnace  and 
the  hot  air  ducfls  should  be  insulated  by  the  use 
of  asbestos  or  other  material.  The  supply  of 
fresh  air  should  be  taken  from  the  outside  of 
the  building  and  should  be  screened  at  the 
intake  In  order  that  dust  may  not  circulate 
through  the  air  chamber  of  the  furnace  and 
into  the  rooms  of  the  dwelling.  There  should 
be  two  fresh  air  intakes  from  the  outside  each 
with  a  regulator  so  that  either  the  one  or  the 
other  or  both  may  be  used  according  to  the 
diredlion  of  the  wind,  otherwise  a  large  amount 
of  cold  air  may  circulate  so  rapidly  that  it  can- 
not be  heated  before  escaping  from  the  hot  air 
chamber  to  the  registers.  Hot  air  registers  un- 
like radiators  should  be  on  the  inside  walls  of 

242 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

rooms  either  in  the  floor  or  in  the  base  of  the 
wall.  Probably  the  base  of  the  wall  is  the 
better  position.  No  hot  air  ducft  should  extend 
a  great  horizontal  distance  from  the  furnace 
lest  hot  air  (carried  only  by  gravity,  or  its  nat- 
ural tendency  to  rise)  should  not  be  properly 
conducfted  to  the  outlet.  This  indicates  that 
the  furnaces  should  be  in  the  centre  of  the  base- 
ment of  the  dwelling  or  toward  the  side  of  the 
building  against  which  the  cold  winds  of  winter 
blow. 

A  very  satisfacftory  scheme  of  heating  is  the 
combination  of  hot  air  and  hot  water.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  hot  water  tank  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  that  supplies 
radiators  in  the  building  with  heat  and  is  there- 
fore an  auxiliary  to  the  hot  air.  Ordinarily  these 
hot  water  radiators  are  placed  in  isolated  parts  of 
the  building  because  hot  water  will  more  readily 
reach  radiators  than  will  hot  air  reach  registers 
when  the  rooms  are  far  removed  from  the  source 
of  heat. 

Steam  Heating. — ^There  are  two  distincft  kinds 
of  steam  heating.  In  the  one  the  radiators  are 
placed  in  the  room  which  is  to  be  warmed.  This 
is  called  direcft  radiation.  In  the  other  the 
radiators  are  placed  outside  of  the  room,  usually 
in  the  basement  and  are  enclosed  within  a  fresh 
air  chamber  or  plenum,  where  air  from  the  out- 
side may  pass  over  them  and  on  through  the 
registers  into  the  room.  This  is  called  indirecfl 
radiation.  The  latter,  as  stated  before,  is  a 
ventilating  as  well  as  a  heating  system,  while 
the  former  is  simply  a  means  of  heating  the  air 

243 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

already  in  the  room.  In  some  respecfts  indire(ft 
radiation  is  like  furnace  heating,  since  in  both 
fresh  air  passes  over  a  heated  surface,  thereby 
becoming  warm,  and  enters  the  room  through  a 
register.  There  is  still  a  third  kind  of  steam 
heat  called  the  direcft-indiredl.  By  this  method 
each  room  is  supplied  with  one  or  more  radiators 
but  instead  of  being  placed  direcftly  in  the  room 
are  placed  just  below  the  floor  and  the  cold  or 
fresh  air  caused  to  pass  over  the  radiating 
surface  into  the  room  thereby  heating  it.  The 
common  method  is  the  first  or  direcft  radiation 
and  is  also  the  most  economical  but  the  least 
healthful,  since  no  ventilation  is  provided.  It 
follows,  then,  that  rooms  heated  with  radiators 
in  them  should  be  provided  with  special  means 
of  ventilation  either  in  the  form  of  dudls  or  fire- 
places. In  the  case  of  indirec5l  radiation  an  outlet 
as  well  as  an  intake  is  provided  for  the  circulation 
of  air. 

Relative  to  the  systems  of  steam  heating, 
there  are  two.  One  is  called  the  gravity  or  low 
pressure  system  and  the  other  is  called  the  non- 
gravity  or  high  pressure  system.  In  the  former 
the  steam  is  under  only  a  few  pounds  pressure 
and  the  water  of  condensation  from  the  various 
radiators  returns  to  the  boiler  by  its  own  weight. 
In  the  latter  the  steam  is  under  a  high  pressure 
at  the  boiler  but  is  reduced  in  pressure  before 
entering  the  radiators.  The  water  is  made  to 
return  to  the  boiler  by  the  use  of  pumps  or 
other  special  machinery.  The  boiler  and  the 
kind  of  radiation  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
system  employed  since  either  system  may  be 

244 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

used  for  the  same  kind  of  radiation.  However, 
high  pressure  systems  are  commonly  used  only 
for  large  plants  while  low  pressure  systems  are 
used  in  general. 

The  apparatus  used  In  steam  heating  Is  quite 
elaborate  and  requires  for  its  installation  an 
experienced  heating  engineer.  The  efficiency 
of  a  steam  heating  plant  can  be  determined, 
only  by  test  so  that  a  specification  usually  calls 
for  results  rather  than  for  particular  mechanism. 
In  all  installations  a  guarantee  as  to  efficiency 
and  fuel  consumption  should  be  required.  The 
boilers  in  themselves  are  of  three  kinds,  called 
horizontal  tubular  boilers,  firebox  boilers  and 
sedlional  boilers,  the  latter  being  made  with 
either  vertical  sedlions  or  horizontal  secfllons. 
Systems  of  heating  for  gravity  systems  are  three 
In  number:  complete  circuit  system  in  which 
the  main  steam  pipe  leads  to  the  highest  part 
of  the  building  first  and  then  to  the  various 
rooms;  the  ordinary  one-pipe  system  In  which 
the  main  pipe  runs  around  the  basement  and 
the  risers  are  taken  from  It;  and  the  two-pipe 
system  In  which  all  pipes  to  radiators  lead  back 
to  the  boiler  necessitating  two  conne(5lions  in  the 
radiator  Itself.  Perhaps  the  ordinary  one-pipe 
system  is  the  most  economical  for  residences. 

Radiators  are  made  In  a  great  many  shapes 
and  with  any  capacity  or  amount  of  radiating 
surface.  The  principle  of  radiators  Is  to  ex- 
pose to  the  air  as  much  heating  surface  as  pos- 
sible In  order  that  the  heat  conveyed  to  them 
by  steam  may  be  utilized  in  heating  the  room. 
The  style  and  shape  of  a  radiator  is  determined 

245 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

by  the  position  which  it  must  occupy.  This 
position  should  be  under  or  near  an  outside 
window  since  that  is  the  coldest  part  of  the 
room  and  usually  the  source  of  fresh  air.  A 
window  with  a  low  sill,  to  have  a  radiator  im- 
mediately beneath  it,  requires  that  the  radiator, 
be,  perhaps,  no  more  than  thirteen  inches  high 
in  which  case,  however,  it  may  be  quite  thick. 
A  narrow  wall  between  outside  windows  to  ac- 
commodate a  radiator  requires  a  tall  thin  form 
in  order  that  it  may  not  be  an  obstrucftion. 
Curved  window-bays  may  have  curved  radiators, 
and  window  seats  may  have  specially  designed 
radiators  to  fit  underneath  them.  In  regard  to 
the  size  of  radiators,  a  two-column  radiator  is 
about  eight  inches  deep  and  may  be  any  height. 
A  three-column  radiator  is  about  nine  inches 
deep  and  may  be  any  height  and  a  four-column 
radiator  is  about  ten  or  eleven  inches  deep.  All 
radiators  are  composed  of  a  number  of  secftions 
each  about  two  and  one-half  inches  wide,  there- 
fore a  radiator  is  given  a  certain  capacity  or  a 
certain  number  of  square  feet  of  radiating  sur- 
face by  selecfting  a  form  of  radiator  of  a  certain 
height  and  combining  as  many  secftions  as  is 
necessary.  Ordinary  patterns  may  be  sele(5led 
from  the  stock  of  several  radiator  companies. 
The  main  fadlors  that  determine  the  amount 
of  radiation  required  in  a  room  are  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  room,  the  outside  wall  areas  and 
the  outside  glass  surface.  By  certain  formulae 
which  take  into  consideration  these  facftors 
the  size  of  the  radiator  may  be  determined. 
Windows    of    course    involve    a    much    greater 

246 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

heat   loss   than    does    the    same    area   of   wall 
space. 

Hot  Water  Heating. — Hot  water  heating  is 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  exacftly  the  same 
paraphernalia  as  is  used  in  steam  heating  with 
the  exception  of  the  size  of  the  radiators  or 
rather  their  radiating  surface.  For  hot  water 
heating,  radiators  must  be  about  one-half  as 
large  again  because  the  average  temperature  of 
hot  water  in  radiators  is  170°  Fahr.,  while  the 
average  temperature  of  steam  for  heating  is 
220°  Fahr.  Therefore  hot  water  will  not  raise 
the  metal  to  as  high  a  temperature  as  steam  and 
consequently  the  metal  will  not  radiate  the  same 
amount  of  heat.  This  system  of  heating  con- 
sists of  circulating  hot  water  throughout  the 
pipes  and  radiators,  the  flow  pipes  being  at- 
tached to  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  the  return 
pipes  to  the  bottom.  The  water  in  the  boiler 
when  heated  rises  and  when  cooled  in  the  radia- 
tors descends  where  it  again  is  heated,  thus 
there  is  a  continual  flow.  There  are  two  systems 
of  hot  water  heating.  One  is  called  the  open 
tank  system  in  which  an  open  expansion  tank 
is  connecfted  to  the  system  to  receive  the  increase 
in  the  volume  of  the  heated  water  and  having 
in  it  a  vent  pipe  to  the  outside  air.  The  other 
system  is  called  the  closed  tank  or  pressure 
system  in  which  a  similar  tank  is  used  and  the 
vent  pipe  is  closed  and  a  safety  valve  attached. 
The  first  or  open  system  is  the  more  safe.  The 
advantage  of  hot  water  heating  over  steam 
heating  is  in  the  rapidity  with  which  a  house 
may  be  warmed  after  the  fire  is  started  in  the 

247 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

boiler,  and  in  the  great  length  of  time  that  radia- 
tors remain  warm  after  the  fire  is  out.  In  a  hot 
water  system,  after  starting  the  fire,  hot  water 
begins  to  circulate  at  once,  but  in  steam  heating, 
steam  must  be  generated  before  the  radiators 
become  warm.  Another  advantage  of  hot  water 
is  that  a  moderate  degree  of  heat  is  more  easily 
maintained  than  with  steam  heating.  The  cost 
of  installation  for  hot  water  heating  is  a  trifle 
more  on  account  of  the  increased  size  of  all  the 
radiators,  but  it  requires  less  attention  than 
hot  air  or  steam  heating  and  the  fuel  consump- 
tion is  usually  less. 

Importance  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. — Heat- 
ing and  ventilation  is  so  important  that  it 
has  become  a  scientific  profession  and  has  been 
developed  to  a  high  degree.  The  general  aim 
has  been  to  provide  systems  of  heating  which 
were  economical  in  operation,  in  first  cost  and 
in  durability.  To  provide  such  systems  for 
large  buildings  where  the  apparatus  is  cared  for 
by  an  expert  engineer  has  not  been  as  difficult  as 
to  provide  a  similar  apparatus  for  the  dwelling. 
Here  the  labor  involved  does  not  warrant  the 
employment  of  a  skilled  man  to  care  for  the 
apparatus  unless  a  number  of  houses  in  a  dls- 
tricft  are  heated  by  one  heating  plant.  In  all 
houses  where  steam  and  hot  water  are  used, 
which  in  themselves  provide  heat  without  ven- 
tilation, it  is  necessary  to  rely  upon  special  de- 
vices for  the  admission  of  plenty  of  fresh  air  and 
for  the  expulsion  of  all  foul  air.  In  conne(5lion 
with  heating,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air 
is  important.    The  ratio  of  the  amount  contained 

248 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

to  that  required  to  saturate  the  air  at  the  tem- 
perature considered  is  called  the  relative  humid- 
ity. If  the  relative  humidity  is  low,  evaporation 
will  take  place  rapidly  and  the  skin  and  mem- 
brane in  the  throat  and  nose  will  become  dry, 
causing  discomfort.  Also,  on  account  of  this 
evaporation  the  body  will  become  cooler.  Too 
much  moisture  in  the  air  causes  the  body  to 
feel  damp  and  even  clammy.  The  usual  amount 
of  moisture  for  comfort  should  be  such  as  to 
give  a  relative  humidit}^  of  about  70  per  cent. 

The  amount  of  pure,  heated  air  of  proper 
relative  humidity  required  per  person  in  a  dwell- 
ing is  approximately  two  thousand  cubic  feet 
each  hour.  The  air  of  living  rooms  in  use  should 
be  changed  four  times  per  hour,  of  kitchens  and 
toilet  rooms  five  times  per  hour,  and  of  bed- 
rooms, except  at  night,  about  once  per  hour. 
When  no  provision  is  made  for  ventilation,  leak- 
age of  air  will  cause  only  about  one-half  of  this 
change  in  atmosphere,  consequently  special  pro- 
vision for  fresh  air  should  always  be  made. 


249 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Show  by  diagram  a  one-pipe  system  of  steam  heat- 
ing. 

(2)  Show  by  diagram  a  system  of  hot  air  heating. 

(3)  Draw  a  radiator  and  explain  how  it  is  known  to 
have  a  certain  number  of  feet  of  radiating  surface. 

References 

Greene. — Elements  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 
Carpenter. — Heating  and  Ventilation  of  Buildings. 
Kidder. — Architedts'  and  Builders'  Pocket-Book. 
Lynde. — Physics  of  the  Household. 
Harding  and  Willard. — Mechanical  Equipment  of  Build- 
ings, Vol.  I. 


250 


CHAPTER  XV.    LIGHTING 

LIGHT. — Light  is  a  radiation  that  trav- 
els through  the  ether  which  pervades 
all  space.  There  are  many  other  forms 
of  radiation  in  the  ether,  light  being 
the  one  with  certain  wave  lengths  that  aifecfl 
the  retina  of  the  eye  and  produce  the  sensation 
known  as  "light."  These  wave  lengths  are  a 
series,  the  shortest  visible  one  being  violet  and 
the  longest  being  red.  White  light  is  a  sensation 
produced  by  a  combination  of  all  colors  in  the 
proportion  as  found  in  daylight. 

Daylight. — ^The  importance  of  good  daylight 
in  a  dwelling  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Not  only  should  good  daylight  reach  all  parts  of  a 
house  but  acflual  sunshine  should  enter  each 
room  for  a  part  of  the  day.  Kitchens  and  bed- 
rooms especially  ought  to  have  sunshine.  The 
importance  of  daylight  lies  both  in  its  illuminat- 
ing and  health  giving  qualities.  Where  light  and 
sunshine  enter  many  pathogenic  ba(5leria  or 
disease  germs  cannot  thrive.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  sleep  is  more  refreshing  and  prolonged 
in  the  absence  of  light  or  in  darkness.  It  follows 
that  the  two  natural  conditions  of  daylight  and 
darkness  should  be  utilized  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent possible  by  human  beings  in  order  to  pro- 
duce the  maximum  soundness  of  mind  and  body. 

Windows  are  the  chief  source  of  light  in  our 
dwellings.  These  should  be  plentiful,  not  nec- 
essarily in  the  matter  of  numbers  but  in  a(5lual 
glass  area.  Having  windows,  it  is  necessary  that 
they  be  not  so  screened  and  curtained  as  to  elimi- 
nate the  possibility  of  admission  of  light.    Most 

251 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  light  enters  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
window  opening  which  is  the  reason  that  school- 
room windows  are  placed  near  the  ceiling.  Light 
from  the  upper  part  of  such  a  window  reaches 
across  the  room  while  light  from  the  lower  part 
reaches  only  a  few  feet  into  the  room.  The  or- 
dinary window  shade  while  sometimes  useful  in 
shutting  out  streaming  sunlight  is  more  often 
detrimental  to  the  admission  of  good  light. 
In  general  it  should  be  kept  rolled  to  the  top  of 
the    window    and    not    drawn    halfway    down. 

Of  the  types  of  windows  the  casement  or 
hinged  window  is  best  for  lighting  and  inci- 
dentally for  ventilation  since  when  open  the 
entire  area  of  the  wall  occupied  is  available  for 
the  circulation  of  air.  Window  shades  are  not 
often  hung  over  casement  and  French  windows, 
and  in  facfl  it  is  impossible  when  the  window 
opens  into  the  room  unless  the  shade  is  hung  on 
the  sash  itself.  A  double  hung  or  sliding 
window  permits  of  only  half  the  area  being  used 
for  ventilation  and  on  account  of  window  shades, 
curtains  and  overhang  the  upper  part  admits 
but  little  light.  However,  double  hung  windows 
are  otherwise  very  pra(5tical.  Ceiling  and  sky- 
lights are  useful  in  halls  where  windows  are  im- 
possible and  essential  in  studios  where  well 
diffused  north  light  is  desired.  Skylights  are 
made  of  translucent  rather  than  transparent 
glass.  To  throw  light  into  a  dark  passage  from 
an  end,  prism  glass  may  be  used  as  in  the  upper 
parts  of  store  fronts. 

Artificial  Light. — ^Artificial  light  has  been  used 
at  all  times.    Probably  the  first  device  for  light- 

252 


LIGHTING 

ing,  after  the  camp-fire,  was  a  torch  made  with  a 
stick  and  a  wad  of  pitch  or  grass.  Next  came 
the  use  of  a  wick  in  animal  or  vegetable  oil 
contained  in  a  vessel.  Until  almost  recently 
tallow  and  wax  candles  were  used,  the  feeble 
rays  of  light  being  harbored  and  prote(5led  from 
blasts  to  prevent  them  from  flickering  out. 
Kerosene  lamps  next  came  into  use  and  are  still 
of  importance  in  isolated  houses.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  kerosene  or  coal  oil  lamp  was  checked 
by  the  introducftion  of  gas  and,  later,  elecflricity 
as  a  means  of  lighting.  By  the  use  of  the  latter, 
night  may  be  made  nearly  as  light  as  day. 

In  artificial  lighting,  illumination  is  more  im- 
portant than  brilliancy.  Dazzling  lights  are  of 
use  only  for  effedts.  Very  bright  lights  may 
give  the  impression  of  illumination  without 
really  lighting  the  room.  If  the  parts  of  a  room 
are  well  illuminated  and  no  brilliant  lights  are 
in  striking  evidence  the  room  is  well  lighted. 
The  important  consideration,  then,  is  diffusion 
of  light  or  the  redu(5lion  of  the  intrinsic  bril- 
liancy of  light.  To  accomplish  this,  shades  and 
refledlors  are  used,  but  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  the  wasting  of  light  in  the  diffusion. 
Shades  are  made  of  ground  or  frosted  glass,  opal, 
or  prism  glass  of  some  special  design.  Reflecftors 
are  of  a  vast  number  of  makes  and  kinds  all  of 
which  are  in  more  or  less  common  use.  Indirect 
lighting  is  accomplished  altogether  by  reflecftion. 

Color  of  light  is  important.  An  imitation  of 
daylight  is  of  course  best  but  difficult.  For 
decorative  effecfls  soft  yellow  or  red  lights  are 
cheerful.     Violet   rays   have   the   general   char- 

253 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

adleristic  of  destrudtiveness  and  are  not  good 
in  illumination.  The  arc  lamp  is  violet  or  blue 
white  in  color.  The  natural  predominant  color 
in  lights  may  be  changed  by  the  use  of  colored 
shades.  Wall  materials,  their  color  and  texture, 
have  an  important  bearing  on  the  lighting  prob- 
lem so  that  it  is  essential  to  take  them  into  con- 
sideration. A  color  is  carried  by  reflecftion  of 
light  to  all  parts  of  a  room  so  that  a  glazed  red 
paper  would  produce  a  glow  of  pink.  In  general, 
bright  colors  and  glazed  surfaces  reflec5l  much 
light,  while  sombre  colors  and  dull  surfaces  re- 
fledl  little  light.  Black  velvet  refledls  pradlically 
no  light  at  all,  the  light  being  absorbed. 

The  intensity  of  light  is  measured  by  a  legal 
standard  called  the  unit  of  intensity  of  light. 
It  is  that  produced  by  the  British  standard 
candle  weighing  one-sixth  of  a  pound  burning 
at  the  rate  of  120  grains  per  hour,  and  producing 
thereby  one  "candle  power."  A  foot  candle, 
or  unit  of  intensity  of  illumination,  is  the  illumi- 
nation obtained  on  a  surface  one  foot  away  from 
a  source  of  light  of  one  candle  power  when  the 
surface  is  at  right  angles  to  the  light  ray.  The 
amount  of  light  necessary  for  a  room  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  room.  It  is  usually  es-" 
timated  in  foot  candles.  The  height  of  the 
ceiling,  color  and  surface  of  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ings, and  other  conditions  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  For  dwellings  the  required  in- 
tensity of  illumination  is  from  one  to  three  foot 
candles.  In  general  the  characfteristics  of  good 
lighting  are  efficiency,  appearance,  diffusion, 
uniformity,    color    value    and    eye    protecftion. 

254 


LIGHTING 

Special  light  for  certain  occupations  must,  how- 
ever, be  provided. 

lUuminating  Gas. — ^There  are  five  kinds  of  il- 
luminating gas.  They  are  coal  gas,  water  gas, 
natural  gas,  gasoline  gas  and  acetylene  gas. 

Coal  gas  is  made  by  heating  bituminous  coal 
in  air-tight  chambers.  It  is  the  most  common 
variety  used  for  illumination  in  towns  and  cities. 
Water  gas  is  made  from  anthracite  coal  and 
steam.  This  gas  contains  less  carbon  than  coal 
gas  and  consequently  does  not  give  as  much 
light  although  it  is  better  for  heating.  When 
used  for  lighting  purposes  carbon  is  added  by 
vaporizing  petroleum  and  injedling  it  into  the 
hot  gas  before  it  leaves  the  generator.  Natural 
gas  is  obtained  from  drilled  wells  and  furnishes 
a  very  economical  system  of  lighting.  Gasoline 
gas  is  a  mixture  of  vaporized  gasoline  and  air. 
It  always  is  generated  close  to  the  burner  rather 
than  piped  for  a  distance.  Acetylene  gas  is  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  architecflural  appliances. 

In  piping  a  house  for  gas  ordinary  wrought 
iron  pipe  such  as  is  used  for  water  is  satisfacftory. 
All  pipe  to  be  used  should  be  tested  before  being 
placed  in  position  in  order  to  insure  against 
leakage.  At  turns,  the  pipe  should  not  be  bent 
but  fittings  should  be  used. 

To  insure  an  even  flow  of  gas  as  well  as  a  suf- 
ficient flow  the  diameters  and  lengths  of  the 
se(5lions  of  pipe  must  be  predetermined.  Since 
the  fri(5lion  increases  with  the  quantity  of  gas 
that  flows  through  a  pipe  the  size  of  the  pipe 
must  be  greatest  at  the  meter.  The  run  of  a 
three-eighths   inch  pipe  may  not  be  more  than 

255 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

twenty  feet;  of  a  one-half  Inch  pipe,  thirty  feet; 
of  a  three-quarter  inch  pipe,  fifty  feet;  of  a  one- 
inch  pipe,  seventy  'feet,  and  of  a  one  and  one- 
quarter  inch  pipe,  one  hundred  feet,  providing 
that  only  one  outlet  is  at  the  end  of  the  pipe. 
For  more  outlets,  the  length  of  pipe  may  not  be 
as  great.  In  a  house  a  three-eighths  inch  pipe  is 
usually  proper  for  a  single  outlet,  but  a  riser 
from  which  several  outlets  are  to  be  taken  should 
never  be  less  than  a  three-quarter  inch  pipe.  A 
gas  range  requires  a  three-quarter  inch  pipe. 
The  accompanying  table  shows  the  correcft  sizes 
of  house  pipes  for  different  lengths  of  pipes  and 
number  of  outlets. 

Number  Length  of  Pipes  in  Feet 

OF  ^1%-in.  yi-in.  ^-in.    i-tn.  lyl-in.  i^-m.  2-in.  lyi-in.  3-in. 

Outlets  Pipe  Pipe    Pipe    Pipe  Pipe  Pipe  Pipe  Pipe  Pipe 

1 20    30    50    70  100  150  200  300  400 

2 27    50    70  100  150  200  300  400 

3 12    50    70  100  150  200  300  400 

4 50    70  100  150  2CO  300  400 

5 33    70  100  150  200  300  400 

6 24    70  100  150  200  300  400 

8 13    50  100  150  200  300  400 

10 35  100  150  200  300  400 

13 21    60  150  200  300  400 

IS 16    45  120  200  300  400 

20 27  65  200  300  400 

25 17    42    17s    300    400 

30 12    30    120    300    400 

35 22    90    270    400 

40 17    70    210    400 

45 -IS    S5        16s    400 

50 45    13s    330 

65 27    80   200 

75 20    60    150 

100 , 33    80 

125 22    50 

ISO IS    35 

175 28 

200 21 

225 17 

250..... 14 

256 


LIGHTING 

Electricity. — Elecftrlcity  appears  to  be  either 
upon  the  surface  of  bodies  as  a  charge  or  to  flow 
through  their  substance  as  a  current.  The 
former  is  called  static  and  the  latter  is  called 
dynamic  elecflricity.  The  branch  of  ele(5trical 
science  that  treats  of  the  acflion  of  ele(5lric  cur- 
rents is  termed  elecftro  dynamics.  Elecftricity 
is  generally  referred  to  as  "flowing"  through 
a  circuit.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  it  may  be 
said  that  ele(5lricity  flows  from  a  higher  potential 
to  a  lower  potential.  Therefore,  when  a  diff^er- 
ence  of  ele<flrical  potential  exists  between  two 
points  of  a  circuit  it  causes  a  flow.  This  difl^er- 
ence  of  potential  is  elecftromotive  force.  The 
unit  of  ele(5lromotive  force  is  the  volt  and  the 
head  or  pressure  that  produces  the  current  is 
the  voltage.  The  quantity  of  current  is  measured 
in  amperes.  An  ampere-hour  represents  an 
amount  of  elecftricity  equal  to  one  ampere  flow- 
ing one  hour.  The  term  load  refers  to  the  current 
that  is  required.  Resistance  is  the  property 
that  causes  a  body  to  oppose  the  free  flow  of 
elecftricity.  The  specific  resistance  of  many  ma- 
terials is  known.  The  unit  of  resistance  is  the 
ohm  which  is  the  resistance  of  a  uniform  column 
of  mercury  106.3  centimeters  long  and  14.4521 
grams  in  mass  at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice. 

The  unit  of  elecftrical  work  is  the  energy  ex- 
pended by  one  ampere  in  one  second  in  over- 
coming the  resistance  of  one  ohm.  This  unit 
of  energy  is  called  the  joule.  The  unit  of  elecftri- 
cal power  is  the  watt  being  the  joule  per  second. 
The  watt  is  also  called  the  volt-ampere;  1000 
watts  equals  one  kilowatt.     The  kilowatt-hour 

2S7 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

is  the  energy  expended  in  one  hour  when  the 
power  is  one  kilowatt;  746  watts  equals  one 
horse-power. 

Electric  Lighting. — For  supplying  ele(5lrical  en- 
ergy to  lamps  several  systems  are  employed. 
The  direcfl-current,  constant-potential  system, 
may  be  from  two-wire  to  seven-wire  systems. 
The  direcft-current,  constant-current,  system, 
is  used  largely  for  municipal  lighting.  The 
alternating-current,  constant-potential  system, 
may  be  a  single-phase,  two-phase  or  three-phase 
system.  The  difference  between  a  diredl  current 
and  alternating  current  is  that  the  former  is 
uniform  in  strength  and  diredlion  while  the  latter 
rapidly  rises  from  zero  to  a  maximum,  falls  to 
zero,  reverses  its  direcflion,  attains  a  maximum 
in  a  new  direcflion  and  again  returns  to  zero. 
The  alternating  current  allows  a  greater  simplic- 
ity in  dynamos  and  motors,  a  facility  for  trans- 
forming from  one  voltage  to  another  and  other 
advantages. 

Personal  Hazard. — ^There  is  an  element  of 
danger  in  connecftion  with  operating  elecftric 
lights  and  devices.  The  chief  one  is  in  turning 
on  a  lamp  or  a  switch  with  wet  fingers  while  one 
hand  is  in  a  basin  of  water.  Another  is  in  per- 
forming the  same  adtion  from  the  bath  tub. 
In  all  cases  it  is  well  to  avoid  handling  elecftrical 
apparatus  with  wet  hands  or  while  standing  on  a 
wet  floor,  since  water  is  a  good  condu(5lor,  and 
any  fixture  may  be  faulty. 

Electric  Wiring. — In  brief,  current  for  use  in 
a  house  is  brought  from  the  wires  of  the  lighting 
company  which  probably  carry  220  volts.    This 

258 


LIGHTING 

elecftric  current  is  brought  in  by  means  of  feed 
wires  which  should  be  in  a  non-conspicuous 
place.  Just  inside  of  the  wall  where  they  enter 
a  main  fuse  block  and  switch  should  be  installed. 
A  distribution  cabinet  is  placed  near  the  centre 
of  the  building  from  which  necessary  circuits 
are  provided  for  the  house,  each  of  which  may 
be  controlled  by  a  switch  in  this  cabinet.  Each 
circuit  carries  660  watts.  In  case  of  more  than 
one  story  in  the  building  a  cabinet  is  placed 
on  each  floor  and  the  circuits  for  that  floor  dis- 
tributed from  it.  Thus  all  lights  in  a  building 
may  be  controlled  by  switches  in  cut-out  cab- 
inets. A  circuit  usually  comprises  about  12 
outlets  and  is  used  for  a  definite  room  or  suite 
of  rooms  for  the  sake  of  convenience. 

In  general,  eledlric  wiring  is  installed  either  as 
a  knob  and  tube  system  or  a  conduit  system, 
all  work  being  concealed.  When  wires  are  not 
confined  within  conduits  or  pipes  they  are  simply 
fastened  to  the  strucftural  parts  of  the  building 
by  means  of  porcelain,  glass,  rubber  and  other 
insulating  materials.  All  wires  exposed  to  air 
and  moisture  must  rely  for  protection  upon  their 
own  insulation.  Conduits  are  made  of  wrought 
iron  pipes,  flexible  iron  pipes,  brass  covered 
pipes,  and  woven  insulated  tubes.  The  funcflion 
of  the  conduit  is  to  carry  eledlric  wires  and  to 
protecfl  them  from  mechanical  injury  and  out- 
side influences,  as  far  as  possible.  In  brick,  tile 
and  concrete  construcftion  it  is  customary  to 
use  a  conduit  system  of  wiring.  In  all  high- 
class  work  a  conduit  system  is  far  better  than 
the  common  system.     The  greatest  danger  in 

259 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

connecftion  with  eleiftrlc  wiring  is  the  accidental 
forming  of  "short  circuits."  This  is  most 
usually  caused  by  wires  having  the  insulation 
burned  off  and  coming  into  conta(ft.  Unpro- 
tecfted  wires  becoming  wet,  water  being  an 
excellent  elecflrical  conductor,  a  current  may 
pass  from  one  wire  to  another  by  sparks,  setting 
fire  to  any  inflammable  material  which  may  be 
near.  If  the  wires  themselves  are  properly 
insulated  and  are  also  in  conduits  this  danger  is 
eliminated.  Conduits  extend  not  only  the 
length  of  every  wire  in  the  building  but  are 
used  in  the  form  of  boxes  at  junc5lions  of  wires, 
outlets  and  switches. 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  have 
prepared  a  set  of  rules  for  the  installation  of  all 
ele(5tric  wiring  and  fixtures  which  is  a  recognized 
standard.  To  obtain  insurance  on  a  building 
it  is  necessary  that  the  National  elecflric  code 
has  been  followed.  Moreover,  most  of  the  towns 
and  cities  of  the  United  States  have  adopted 
this  code  as  a  part  of  the  building  ordinances. 

Switches. — ^The  elecftric  switch  is  a  device  for 
opening  and  closing  a  circuit  supplying  a  current 
to  an  outlet  or  series  of  outlets.  For  controlling 
a  lamp  a  switch  is  connecfled  with  a  loop  from 
the  lamp  and  with  the  distributing  or  circuit 
wire.  For  controlling  a  series  of  lamps  perhaps 
all  in  one  large  room  a  switch  is  cut  into  the 
circuit  that  feeds  the  lamps.  The  mechanism 
of  switches  is  varied.  For  house  use  or  for  con- 
trolling the  various  lamps  in  the  dwelling  a  push 
button  switch  set  flush  in  the  wall  of  the  room 
is  most  satisfac5lory.     For  controlling  a  circuit 

260 


LIGHTING 

a  double  pole  knife  switch  Is  commonly  used, 
being  placed  in  the  cut-out  cabinet.  Switches 
may  be  one-way,  three-way  or  four-way  switches. 
A  one-way  switch  is  the  ordinary  appliance  used 
to  turn  on  or  off  the  light  from  one  point  only, 
which  point  would  be  conveniently  near  the 
entrance  door  to  the  room.  A  three-way  switch 
is  an  appliance  whereby  a  light  may  be  turned 
on  upon  entering  one  door  of  a  room  and  turned 
off  upon  leaving  the  room  through  another  door. 
Two  three-way  switches  and  intermediate  four- 
way  switches  are  commonly  used  on  stairways, 
so  that  at  any  floor  or  landing  the  lights  on  the 
stairs  may  be  controlled. 

Circuit  Breakers,  Cut-Outs  and  Fuses. — ^These 
are  the  great  safety  devices  in  any  system  of 
wiring.  Their  objecft  is  to  shut  off  elecflrical 
current  from  any  part  of  the  system  when  a 
dangerous  amount  of  current  passes  through  the 
wire.  Circuit  breakers  are  automatic  switches 
used  on  switch  boards  in  large  installations  to 
open  circuits  instantly  and  to  take  the  place  of 
fuses  when  the  latter  are  not  convenient  or  when 
the  latter  are  subje(5l  to  frequent  renewals.  A 
cut-out  is  a  porcelain  appliance  with  a  fuse 
inserted  between  the  ends  of  the  wires  used  in 
the  cut-out  cabinet  to  prote(ft  a  circuit.  A  fuse 
is  any  small  piece  of  fusible  material  inserted  in 
a  wire  which  when  overheated  by  a  current  melts 
away  thereby  breaking  the  circuit.  Fuses,  cut- 
outs and  circuit  breakers  must  necessarily  be 
employed  throughout  an  installation  to  protecft 
every  part  and  the  whole  of  It.  The  ordinary 
fuse  plug  in  common  use  when  burned  out  by 

261 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

accident  such  as  overloading  of  wire  may  be 
readily  replaced  if  a  supply  of  fuses  of  proper 
capacity  is  always  on  hand.  A  very  common 
cause  of  blowing  out  a  fuse  is  the  use  of  an 
instrument  like  an  elecftric  iron  on  an  eledlric 
light  outlet,  this  instrument  consuming  more 
power  than  the  circuit  is  able  to  provide.  A 
blow-out  necessitates  simply  the  insertion  of  a 
new  plug  which  would  cost  probably  five  cents. 

Lamps. — Lamps  are  of  two  kinds,  arc  and 
incandescent.  Arc  lamps  are  used  mostly  for 
exterior  illumination.  Incandescent  lamps  are  of 
a  number  of  varieties  the  principle  of  illumina- 
tion being  the  heating  of  the  small  wire  inside 
of  the  globe  to  a  state  of  white  heat  or  incandes- 
cence. These  lamps  have  been  developed  re- 
markably of  late  and  are  now  very  economical 
of  current.  The  old  carbon  incandescent  lamps 
were  not  economical.  Electric  lamps  are  rated 
in  watts  or  power  consumption. 

Incandescent  lamps  are  connecfted  to  dis- 
tribution wires  in  three  ways:  in  series,  in  par- 
allel and  in  parallel  series.  When  lamps  of  a 
circuit  are  arranged  one  after  another  so  that 
the  current  flows  through  all  of  them  the  lamps 
are  in  series.  When  the  lamps  of  a  circuit  are 
arranged  with  two  wires  conne(fting  with  the 
wires  of  a  circuit  they  are  lamps  in  parallel. 
This  is  the  common  method  of  wiring  and  prob- 
ably the  best.  Any  one  lamp  may  be  controlled 
by  a  switch  of  its  own,  or  the  whole  number  on 
the  circuit  may  be  turned  on  or  off  at  one  time 
by  the  use  of  a  knife  switch.  When  the  lamps  of 
a  circuit  are  arranged  in  sets  on  a  wire  between 

262 


LIGHTING 

the  two  wires  of  a  circuit  they  are  lamps  in 
parallel  series.  This  is  simply  a  combination 
of  the  other  two  methods  of  wiring  for  lamps. 
A  three-wire  system  is  also  in  use. 

Method  of  Calculation. — In  elecflric  lighting 
calculations,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  the 
term  "lumen"  is  used.  A  lumen  is  the  quantity 
or  flux  of  light  necessary  to  produce  one  foot- 
candle  average  intensity  of  illumination  over  an 
area  of  one  square  foot.  As  an  example,  cal- 
culate the  lighting  for  a  dining  room  thirteen 
feet  square  and  ten  feet  high.  First,  assume  that 
the  intensity  of  illumination  should  be  2  foot- 
candles  for  a  dining  room,  the  color  of  the  walls 
and  ceiling  being  dark.  The  area,  169  sq.  ft., 
times  2  foot-candles  equals  338.  Assume  that 
60%  of  the  light  is  absorbed  by  the  reflecftor, 
walls  and  ceiling,  leaving  40%  of  efficient  light. 
Divide  338  by  .40  to  get  the  total  light  in  lumens 
required.  This  will  be  845  lumens,  the  quantity 
of  light  needed.  The  lumens  of  elecflric  lamps 
are  known  so  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  to 
selecft  lamps  of  certain  wattage  that  will  answer 
the  purpose  and  to  locate  the  fixtures  where 
uniform  light  will  be  produced.  An  element  to 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  calculation  is  dust 
on  lamps.  Much  dust  may  reduce  the  efficiency 
of  a  lamp  25%.  All  lamps  and  fixtures  should 
be  cleaned  very  often. 

Methods  of  Illumination  and  Fixtures. — Light- 
ing or  illumination  is  accomplished  by  the  di- 
recft  method  and  by  the  indirecft  method.  The 
former  consists  of  illuminating  the  room  by 
means  of  lamps  with  the  lights  diffused  or  re- 

263 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

flecfted  direcftly.  The  latter  consists  of  conceal- 
ing all  the  lamps  behind  solid  or  opaque  reflectors 
but  allowing  light  to  shine  upon  the  walls  and 
ceilings  from  where  it  is  reflecfted  onto  surfaces 
to  be  illuminated.  Indire<5t  lighting  requires 
more  ele(flricity  but  produces  a  more  satisfacftory 
light  than  does  diredl  lighting.  The  light  is 
better  diffused  and  consequently  easier  on  the 
eyes.  A  combination  of  the  two  methods  in 
house  lighting  is  pleasing.  Sometimes  a  fixture 
combines  the  two  either  by  the  use  of  an  opaque 
bowl  reflecftor  or  by  having  lamp5  on  the  under 
side  of  a  bowl  for  direcft  lighting.  Portable  lamps 
used  on  a  table  must  necessarily  be  for  diredl 
lighting  but  whether  on  a  reading  table,  dining 
room  table,  or  writing  desk  should  never  have 
the  naked  lights  exposed  to  the  eye.  A  shade 
or  reflecftor  is  necessary.  Reading  lamps  should 
of  course  focus  intense  but  well  diffused  light. 
Dining  room  lamps  should  either  be  high  over 
the  table  so  as  to  throw  light  in  a  general  manner 
or  should  be  very  low  so  as  not  to  be  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  gaze.  Lamps  which  of  necessity 
must  be  in  the  line  of  vision  should  be  en- 
closed with  a  globe  and  may  diffuse  soft  colored 
light. 

The  materials  used  for  fixtures  by  manufac- 
turers is  most  varied.  Every  year  new  designs 
appear  on  the  market.  Selections  of  lighting 
fixtures  is  a  matter  of  taste  and  discrimination. 
Only  articles  that  will  be  of  permanent  wear 
should  be  used.  They  may  be  of  iron,  brass, 
bronze,  glass  or  other  materials.  Plated  ware 
is  not  desirable.     The  more  simple  designs  are 

264 


LIGHTING 

best  in  that  they  are  not  tiresome  and  are  easily 
kept  clean.  The  lighting  fixture  should  not  be 
considered  an  ornament  but  a  means  of  sup- 
porting lamps.  The  lamp  itself  may  be  either 
purposely  ornamental  or  simply  utilitarian. 


26s 


/ 
/ 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Show  by  diagram  how  eledlric  lamps  may  be 
placed  on  a  circuit. 

(2)  Show  by  diagram  a  good  arrangement  of  lamps  in  a 
familiar  living  room. 

(3)  Lay  out  a  scheme  of  furnishing  ele<ftric  current  to  a 
residence  for  lighting  purposes  showing  feed  wires,  meter, 
cut-out  cabinet,  distribution  panels,  and  circuits. 

References 

Barrows. — Light,  Photometry  and  Illumination. 
Bell. — The  Art  of  Illumination. 
Lynde. — Physics  of  the  Household. 


266 


vV, 


CHAPTER  XVI.    PLUMBING 

INTRODUCTION.— Plumbing  includes  hot 
and  cold  water  supply,  drainage  and  sew- 
age systems,  incidental  appliances  of  the 
same  nature  and  sometimes  gas  fitting  or 
piping  for  gas.  Good  plumbing  depends  largely 
upon  the  mechanic  intrusted  with  the  work  of  in- 
stallation and  upon  the  quality  of  materials  used. 
It  is  necessary  in  the  plumbing  work  of  a  resi- 
dence to  depend  largely  upon  the  plumber  himself. 
Water  Supply. — ^Water  is  supplied  to  houses 
by  pressure  from  a  municipal  or  private  water 
plant.  Pipes  employed  for  conveying  cold  water 
are  usually  made  of  wrought  iron.  Lead  pipes 
were  once  used  extensively.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  as  a  general  average  one  person  in  a 
household  consumes  about  twenty-five  gallons 
of  water  each  day.  A  horse  or  cow  consumes 
about  seven  gallons  a  day  and  a  carriage  or 
machine  requires  ten  to  twenty  gallons  per  day. 
Under  certain  conditions  much  more  water  will 
be  consumed  than  here  stated.  Lawns  and 
gardens  may  require  a  vast  amount  of  water. 
It  follows  that  the  size  of  the  pipe  supplying 
the  house  must  be  sufficient  to  produce  a  strong 
flow  so  that  when  water  is  being  drawn  from  a 
number  of  faucets  at  a  time  the  flow  from  any 
faucet  will  not  be  materially  diminished.  In 
case  of  fire  an  especially  strong  flow  of  water 
may  be  found  to  be  essential.  The  pressure  and 
size  of  the  pipe  determine  the  flow  of  water. 
In  high  pressure  water  systems  a  one-half  inch 
pipe  may  be  large  enough  while  in  a  low  pres- 
sure system  a  one  and  one-half  inch  pipe  may 

267 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

be  necessary.  Low  pressure  means  a  pressure 
of  less  than  twenty  pounds  per  square  inch. 
When  the  pressure  is  very  low  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  provide  a  house  tank,  that  is,  a  tank  in 
the  attic  to  receive  a  constant  small  stream  of 
water  and  thus  form  a  reservoir  from  which  a 
large  stream  may  be  drawn  at  any  time  for  a 
limited  period  or  until  the  tank  is  nearly  empty. 
The  capacity  of  a  house  tank  or  storage  tank 
should  be  200  gallons.  It  should  be  construcfted 
of  sheet  lead,  galvanized  iron  or  zinc  as  lining 
for  a  strong  wooden  tank.  When  city  water 
pressure  is  very  high,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
reduce  it  before  the  water  enters  the  house 
system  on  account  ^of  danger  of  breaking  ap- 
paratus. Hot  water  is  provided  by  a  gravity 
system  of  waterflow  in  which  water  from  the 
city  supply  or  from  a  tank  of  soft  water  in  the 
attic  flows  through  the  range  or  heater  and  is 
stored  in  a  hot  water  tank.  These  systems  vary 
somewhat,  but  it  is  important  that  the  loop  for 
circulation  of  water  be  so  construcfted  that 
there  is  a  constant  flow  from  the  boiler  around 
the  loop  and  back  to  the  boiler  regardless  of 
whether  or  not  hot  water  is  being  drawn  ofl^. 
In  this  method  of  construdlion,  hot  water  con- 
tinues to  circulate  even  when  the  city  water  is 
turned  oil. 

Water  pipes  should  not  be  placed  in  outside 
walls  where  freezing  is  common  unless  the  pipes 
are  especially  well  protecfled.  It  often  happens 
that  plumbing  fixtures  are  more  convenient  on 
outside  walls  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  take 
precautions  against  freezing. 

268 


PLUMBING 

Drainage. — Drainage  means  the  conducfting 
of  rain  water  from  the  roof,  surface  water  from 
the  grounds  and  seepage  water  from  the  base- 
ment floor  and  other  floors  either  above  or 
below  grade.  Rain  water  may  be  condu(5led 
from  the  roof  to  a  cistern  and  used  for  the  house 
since  in  many  localities  city  water  is  not  suitable 
for  washing  purposes,  being,  like  much  well 
water,  too  hard.  Water  is  conducfled  from  a 
roof  by  means  of  a  gutter  at  the  eaves  and  down 
spouts  leading  to  drain  tiles  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Gutters  and  down  spouts  are 
made  of  tin,  copper  or  galvanized  iron.  Drain 
tile  below  grade  are  of  the  ordinary  terra  cotta 
tile.  Where  a  cistern  is  used  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  shut-off  in  order  that  excessive  water  may 
be  turned  from  the  cistern  into  the  drain  tile. 

Drain  tiles  at  the  foot  of  the  foundation  wall 
should  be  provided  to  carry  off  the  water  that 
seeps  through  the  soil  thereby  preventing  the 
basement  walls  from  absorbing  moisture  which 
would  cause  a  damp  cellar.  At  certain  places 
in  the  basement,  outlets  for  water  should  be 
provided  to  which  tiles  are  joined  all  leading  to 
the  sewer  or  to  the  low  point  and  natural  drain- 
age of  the  property.  Laundries  and  bathrooms 
especially  require  floor  drainage.  Drain  tiles 
leading  to  the  sewer  must  be  construdled  with 
traps  like  that  of  the  private  sewer  in  order  to 
prevent  sewer  gas  from  escaping  back  into  the 
house.  All  parts  of  the  grounds  should  be  drained 
either  by  means  of  gradual  slopes  or  by  means 
of  tile  in  order  that  rain  water  will  quickly  flow 
to  its  outlet.     Depressions  of  any  kind  require 

269 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

a  Special  drainage  treatment.  Steep  hills  where 
water  may  flow  in  a  small  torrent  on  the  surface 
very  often  require  concrete  boxes  or  catch  basins 
into  which  the  water  may  pour  but  be  further 
conducTted  by  means  of  tile.  Such  boxes  should 
have  a  lid  constru(5led  of  slats,  a  perforated 
board  or  an  iron  grating  in  order  that  rubbish 
may  not  fill  the  inside.  A  tile  leading  from  this 
kind  of  box  is  not  placed  in  the  bottom  because 
it  is  necessary  that  the  silt  be  allowed  to  deposit 
there  to  keep  the  tile  itself  clear.  This  silt  should 
be  removed  occasionally. 

Sewers. — Ordinarily  all  liquid  waste  from  a 
house  is  conducfted  to  the  public  sewer  by  means 
of  pipes.  Pipes  inside  of  the  house  are  made 
of  cast  or  wrought  iron  and  fitted  together  by 
means  of  threads  and  sleeves  in  an  air-tight 
manner.  The  pipes  leading  from  sinks  and 
lavatories  are  called  waste  pipes  and  are  usually 
two  inches  in  diameter.  Those  from  water- 
closets  are  called  soil  pipes  and  are  usually  four 
inches  in  diameter.  Iron  pipes  lead  to  a  few 
feet  outside  of  the  basement  wall  where  they 
are  connedled  to  vitrified  tile  laid  together  with 
cement  mortar  forming  a  continuous  pipe  lead- 
ing to  the  street  sewer.  Certain  precautions 
are  necessary  in  plumbing  installation  to  insure 
perfe(5l  sanitation  and  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
sewer  gas  into  the  dwelling.  To  accomplish  this 
a  system  of  traps  and  vents  has  been  invented 
and  is  required  by  pradlically  every  city  building 
ordinance.  A  trap  is  a  device  which  allows 
liquid  to  flow  through  it  but  prevents  the  pas- 
sage of  gas  in  either  direc5lion.     The  ordinary 

270 


PLUMBING 

trap  consists  of  a  downward  crook  in  the  waste 
or  soil  pipe  which  constantly  holds  water  thereby 
forming  what  is  called  a  water  seal.  Pressure 
of  water  from  above  forces  the  water  contained 
in  the  trap  on  through  the  pipe  but  other  water 
takes  its  place.  A  great  pressure  of  air  or  gas 
may  blow  out  a  water  seal  but  a  trap  is  or- 
dinarily not  subje(fted  to  such  pressure.  On 
the  under  side  of  the  trap  a  trap  screw  is  in- 
variably provided  for  cleaning  out  the  pipe. 
Since  all  sewer  pipes  at  times  contain  gas  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  an  outlet  for  it.  This  is 
accomplished  by  erecfting  a  pipe  called  a  vent 
stack  from  a  point  beneath  the  trap  to  a  point 
above  the  roof.  Gas  then  has  a  natural  means 
of  escape.  Every  plumbing  fixture  including 
water-closets,  sinks  and  lavatories  must  be 
provided  with  a  trap  and  a  vent  stack.  Quite 
often  the  four-inch  soil  pipe  is  extended  from 
the  basement  through  the  roof  becoming  in  its 
upper  extremity  the  vent.  Each  fixture  with 
its  trap  is  connecfted  to  it  by  means  of  two  pipes, 
one  for  drainage  and  the  other  for  ventilation. 
Traps  are  of  a  great  many  types  all  of  which 
answer  the  same  purpose. 

Waste  water  from  kitchen  sinks  usually  con- 
tains grease  which  will  eventually  clog  sewer 
pipes  unless  removed.  Removal  is  accomplished 
by  the  construdlion  of  grease  traps  consisting  of 
a  basin  made  of  lead  or  tile  into  which  the  waste 
water  pours  before  entering  the  sewer.  The 
pipe  which  carries  the  water  from  a  grease  trap 
is  projec5led  into  the  lower  part  of  it  since  the 
grease  itself  always  collecfts  at  the  top  of  the  pool. 

271 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

The  depth  of  the  water  is  held  constant  at  the 
horizontal  line  of  the  outlet  pipe  and  the  whole 
trap  is  ventilated  like  any  other  fixture. 

Septic  Tanks. — For  an  isolated  house  where 
a  sewer  is  an  impossibility  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide a  cesspool  or  septic  tank  with  an  absorp- 
tion system,  which  should  be  located  perhaps 
forty  feet  at  least  from  the  house  and  should 
accommodate  only  the  sewage  rather  than  the 
drainage  water.  A  cesspool  is  simply  an  under- 
ground tank  or  cistern  made  of  brick  or  plank 
set  together  in  such  a  way  that  water  may  seep 
into  the  surrounding  soil.  It  is  essential  there- 
fore that  the  surrounding  soil  be  porous,  gravel 
being  the  most  serviceable.  A  cesspool  is  only 
a  temporary  structure.  As  soon  as  it  becomes 
full  of  solid  matter  it  is  cleaned  out  or  abandoned 
and  a  new  one  built.  It  should  be  sufficiently 
below  the  surface  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas. 
All  gas  formed  should  be  conducted  by  means 
of  a  vent  pipe  to  a  high  point  above  the  roof  of 
the  dwelling.  A  very  efficient  way  of  taking 
care  of  sewage  is  by  means  of  a  septic  tank  made 
of  concrete.  Certain  principles  are  involved  in 
the  destrucftlon  of  waste  matter  and  the  carrying 
off  of  the  harmless  liquid  resulting  from  the  proc- 
ess. The  sewage  flows  through  a  regular  sewer 
pipe  into  a  part  of  the  septic  tank  which  is  air 
tight,  where  ba(5leria  that  thrive  without  the 
presence  of  free  oxygen  a(5l  upon  the  contents. 
From  the  first  compartment  the  liquid  flows 
into  a  second  part,  which  is  ventilated,  where 
ba(fteria  that  thrive  in  the  presence  of  oxygen 
acft  and  thereby  cause  the  liquid  to  be  purified. 

272 


PLUMBING 

It  Is  necessary  that  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  septic  tank  be  not  disturbed  so  that  the  sys- 
tem of  flow  of  sewage  is  by  means  of  siphons. 
For  disposing  of  the  Hquid  from  a  septic  tank  a 
set  of  tile  pipes  may  carry  it  to  a  field  where  it 
performs  a  funcftion  of  irrigation  or  with  seepage 
water  may  be  drained  off  by  a  tile  or  an  open 
ditch. 

Fixtures. — ^The  materials  employed  for  plumb- 
ing fixtures  are  marble,  porcelain,  vitreous  ware, 
enameled  iron,  tile  and  soapstone.  Originally 
marble  was  used  most  extensively  but  has  come 
into  disuse.  Perhaps  the  best  plumbing  fixtures 
are  now  made  out  of  porcelain.  It  is  a  hard 
impervious  material,  white  or  cream  white  in 
color  and  is  of  an  attracflive  appearance  in  gen- 
eral. It  is  made  in  several  grades,  the  best  being 
very  expensive.  Vitreous  ware  resembles  porce- 
lain but  is  of  a  bluish  white  color.  It  costs 
about  the  same  as  the  cheaper  qualities  of  porce- 
lain. Enameled  iron  for  plumbing  fixtures  is 
cast  iron  enameled  on  the  surface.  It  is  used 
more  extensively  than  any  other  material  on 
account  of  its  cheapness  and  durability.  The 
chief  drawback  to  the  use  of  enameled  iron  in 
plumbing  fixtures  is  the  tendency  of  enamel  to 
crack  when  exposed  to  undue  heat.  The  best 
enameled  iron  is  guaranteed  to  withstand  sudden 
application  of  hot  water.  Tile  is  an  elegant 
material  for  certain  plumbing  fixtures  but  re- 
quires skillful  workmanship  to  produce  satis- 
facftory  results.  In  the  use  of  tile  it  is  essential 
that  the  tile  be  impervious  to  water  and  that  the 
cement  used  in  laying  the  tile  be  durable.    Soap- 

273 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Stone  is  used  especially  for  counters  and  sinks  and 
is  very  pradlical. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  plumbing  fixture 
in  a  house  is  the  water-closet.  These  are  being 
improved  year  by  year  with  the  general  tendency 
to  obtain  a  fixture  that  is  perfectly  sanitary, 
convenient  and  noiseless.  The  manufacfturers 
show  very  efficient  models.  The  various  parts 
of  a  water-closet  should  be  so  constru(fted  as  to 
be  very  plain  and  easily  cleaned.  Perhaps  no  one 
modern  fixture  is  better  in  every  respecft  than 
any  other.  The  siphon  type  of  closet  in  which 
the  water  enters  at  the  rim  above  the  bowl  and 
the  contents  are  siphoned  out  at  the  bottom  in  a 
noiseless  manner  is  probably  the  best.  Lava- 
tories are  of  a  large  number  of  patterns,  among 
which  are  the  pedestal  lavatory,  the  bracket 
lavatory  and  the  built-in  lavatory.  Each  may 
be  of  any  material  and  of  convenient  size  and 
shape  to  fit  the  space  provided  for  it.  Perhaps 
the  lavatory  set  away  from  the  wall  on  brackets 
with  the  pipes  from  the  wall  rather  than  from  the 
floor  is  the  most  sanitary  and  the  most  easily 
kept  clean. 

Bath  tubs  are  of  three  types,  those  with  a  base, 
those  with  four  separate  feet  and  those  built 
into  the  wall  or  sometimes  into  an  alcove.  It 
is  necessary  that  small  spaces  behind  and  be- 
neath tubs  be  eliminated  since  they  invariably 
colledl  dirt  and  are  difl^icult  of  access.  A  model 
type  of  bath  tub  is  one  sunk  in  the  floor  of  the 
bathroom  and  enclosed  with  a  brass  railing. 
Steps  may  lead  into  it  at  a  convenient  place. 
Such  a  bath  tub  may  be  made  of  any  waterproof 

274 


PLUMBING 

material  but  is  best  made  of  glazed  white  tile. 
They  are  not  as  expensive  as  would  seem  at  first 
thought  and  occupy  very  little  more  space  than 
ordinary  bath  tubs.  The  main  objecftion  to  them 
is  the  space  occupied  below  the  floor  level. 

Foot  baths,  infant  baths,  showers  and  other 
fixtures  of  many  patterns  are  in  the  market 
from  which  very  suitable  bath  equipment  may 
be  selected.  The  main  considerations  in  regard 
to  plumbing  fixtures  are  to  have  them  free  from 
crevices,  set  well  away  from  other  materials 
which  absorb  moisture,  and  provided  with  backs 
to  accommodate  faucets. 

Kitchen  sinks  and  laundry  tubs,  like  other 
plumbing  fixtures,  may  be  had  in  many  designs. 
Perhaps  the  most  pracftical  kitchen  sink  is  one 
of  enameled  iron  rather  than  of  a  more  expensive 
material.  Also  a  kitchen  sink  incorporated  in 
the  kitchen  counter  provided  with  a  back  of 
its  own  is  more  convenient  than  the  combina- 
tion sink  and  drain  boards  provided  by  manu- 
fadturers.  The  question  of  kitchen  sinks  resolves 
itself  into  one  of  preference.  Certain  special 
sinks  for  the  pantry  and  also  slop  sinks  for  use 
in  general  cleaning  are  found  to  be  very  conven- 
ient if  space  and  money  can  be  provided  for 
them.  Laundry  tubs  are  made  in  convenient 
series  of  two  or  three  trays.  They  also  may  be 
of  porcelain,  vitreous  ware,  enameled  iron,  soap- 
stone  or  cement. 


275 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)   Show  by  diagram  the  principle  of  ventilating  any- 
plumbing  fixture. 

(2)  Show  by  sketch  how  rain  water  flowing  down  the 
side  of  a  gravel  walk  may  be  properly  taken  care  of. 

(3)  Design  a  model  concrete  septic  tank. 

References 

Clark. — The  Care  of  a  House. 

Putnam. — Plumbing  and  Household  Sanitation. 

Starbuck. — Standard  Practical  Plumbing. 


27^ 


CHAPTER     XVII.      GARDENS      AND 
GROUNDS 

INTRODUCTION. — Architedlure,  landscape 
architecfture  and  gardening  are  closely  re- 
lated. The  treatment  of  a  home  grounds 
including  the  three  should  be  harmonious. 
Although  we  may  not  name  the  style  of.  our 
dwelling,  certain  architecftural  charadleristics  al- 
most invariably  suggest  either  formal  or  in- 
formal garden  treatment.  Ordinarily,  in  the 
case  of  American  homes,  formal  treatment  has 
a  leaning  to  Colonial,  French  or  Italian  style, 
while  informal  treatment  has  a  leaning  to  Eng- 
lish. For  the  sake  of  convenience,  and  on  ac- 
count of  common  usage,  these  terms  for  styles 
may  be  employed. 

Intimacy. — ^The  great  quality  to  be  acquired 
in  landscape  gardening  is  intimacy.  A  garden 
must  be  not  only  attracflive  but  compelling. 
The  house  should  be  concealed  rather  than  re- 
vealed, and  should  become  a  part  of  an  inviting 
landscape.  To  accomplish  this  end  the  garden 
must  commence  at  the  walls  of  the  building 
with  vines  and  shrubs,  and  the  garden  path 
must  lead  one  from  the  door  to  pleasant  retreats. 
It  may  here  be  said  that  environment  has  a 
direc5t  influence  on  the  mind  and  body,  and  that 
natural  beauty  at  the  threshold  is  an  everlasting 
inspiration. 

Character. — In  the  beginning,  or  when  a  site 
is  in  its  natural  condition,  the  prominent  char- 
acfleristic  of  that  site  should  be  emphasized 
in  the  final  result  of  house  and  garden.  If  this 
characfteristic  is  purposely  destroyed  or  slighted, 

277 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  produ(5l  is  very  apt  to  be  a  misfit  in  the 
broad  landscape,  or  at  least  will  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  artificiality.  In  some  cases,  es- 
pecially in  suburban  properties,  the  whole 
topography  or  lay  of  the  land  may  be  changed 
by  grading,  thereby  establishing  a  new  condi- 
tion which  may  be  pleasing.  Whole  hills  have 
been  washed  down  by  hydraulic  processes, 
forming  roads  and  terraces,  and  buildings  have 
been  ere(5led  which  were  not  only  conveniently 
accessible,  but  which  were  well  placed  in  a  sort 
of  artificial  formality.  Also  dull  sites  have  been 
made  over  by  forming  lakes  and  other  features 
which  produced  a  pleasing  but  artificial  infor- 
mality. These  two  landscape  treatments  are 
really  extreme  and  costly,  and  do  not  compare 
with  natural  beauty. 

Large  grounds  should  be  treated  broadly 
and  left  untouched  as  far  as  possible.  The 
treatment  would  consist  chiefly  of  clearing  the 
ground  of  undesirable  brush  and  debris,  and 
saving  and  improving  the  turf,  trees  and  other 
natural  assets.  At  proper  places  on  the  grounds, 
the  flower  garden,  vegetable  garden,  orchard, 
outbuildings,  and  the  special  features  should 
be  intensively  developed.  In  almost  all  cases  a 
formal  spot  of  garden  is  desirable,  the  exacft 
nature  of  it  depending  upon  the  personal  taste 
of  the  owner,  the  house,  the  soil  and  the  climate. 
Climate  is  a  highly  important  consideration  in 
all  landscape  gardening,  for  self-evident  reasons. 
The  land  of  firs  may  not  be  treated  like  the  land 
of  palms. 

Suburban  grounds  must  necessarily  be  treated. 
278 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

In  a  smaller  and  more  compact  way  than  coun- 
try grounds.  Here  the  conditions  are  more  va- 
ried than  elsewhere,  since  lots  may  be  very  small 
indeed,  or  several  acres  in  extent.  The  same 
general  principles  apply  to  all  treatments. 

The  landscape  gardening  of  farms  is  being 
developed  slowly  but  steadily.  The  real  farm, 
ranch  or  plantation,  should  be  beautified  by 
common  sense  methods.  First  of  all,  permanent 
trees,  if  not  already  present,  should  be  set  out 
as  groves  and  windbreaks,  and  to  form  avenues 
where  much  used  roads  and  lanes  will  always 
be  located.  A  convenient  working  lay-out  of  the 
farm  should  be  established,  allowing  free  cir- 
culation for  vehicles  and  the  moving  of  live 
stock.  The  house  should  have  a  good  back- 
ground of  trees,  with  open  vistas  to  give  views 
in  all  important  directions.  Windmills,  out- 
buildings, and  the  dwelling  itself  may  be  screened 
with  hardy  vines  to  soften  the  bold  lines.  Homes 
in  rocky  and  wooded  parts  of  the  country  are 
not  difficult  to  treat,  but  the  prairie  farmhouse 
requires  much  work  and  time  to  get  a  pleasing 
appearance. 

Local  Materials. — ^To  receive  full  economic 
value  of  a  suburban  property,  both  in  saving  of 
money  and  in  gaining  artistic  effedl,  no  one 
thing  is  more  important  than  the  use  of  local 
materials  such  as  stone,  wood  and  top  soil. 
The  soil  should  always  be  preserved  and  im- 
proved, and  when  subjedled  to  the  strain  of 
growing  crops  will  absolutely  require  a  fertilizer, 
according  to  agricultural  principles.  Field  stone, 
boulders    and    quarried    rock    taken    from    the 

279 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ground  should  be  utilized  for  building  walls 
and  walks.  No  material  will  look  so  well  as 
local  material  applied  on  the  premises.  Logs  and 
poles  can  be  used,  when  there  is  a  surplus  of 
trees,  for  rustic  work.  Bridges  construdled  of 
stone  or  wood  supplied  on  the  ground  cannot 
be  surpassed,  if  well  designed.  The  English 
cottager  employs  his  materials  in  this  way,  as 
do  many  of  the  rural  dwellers  of  the  older 
states  of  the  Union.  Their  places  are  often 
charming. 

Utilities. — Outdoor  utilities  occur  on  every 
estate.  The  smallest  cottage  on  the  smallest 
lot  will  require  a  path  or  walk  at  least.  Such 
homely  utilities  as  clothes  lines  and  driers  may 
be  eredled  and  may  be  made  attracflive.  Wood- 
houses  and  all  more  or  less  inconsequential 
outbuildings  should  be  located  where  entirely 
convenient,  and  treated  afterwards.  Outbuild- 
ings may  consist  of  servants'  quarters,  a  stable, 
garage,  or  often  a  complete  set  of  farm  structures. 
They  never  need  to  be  unattracflive. 

In  recent  years  a  garage  with  an  automobile 
approach  has  become  very  common,  so  that  it 
is  either  provided  as  a  separate  strucfture,  or  on 
the  ground  floor  of  the  house  proper.  Occasion- 
ally on  hill  properties  the  garage  consists  of  a 
cave  or  dug-out  in  a  bank  of  earth,  perhaps  at 
the  street  level,  and  is  reached  from  the  house 
by  means  of  a  tunnel  or  pergola  with  steps  at  one 
or  both  ends. 

Utilities  may  be  such  buildings  as  greenhouses, 
vegetable  gardens,  or  poultry  yards,  but  no 
matter    what    contrivances    are    required,    all 

280 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

should  be  placed  according  to  conditions  of 
acftual  use  and  lay  of  the  land. 

Drives  and  walks,  or  approaches,  as  they  are 
termed  architedturally,  are  essential.  They 
should  be  placed  in  the  dire(5l  but  perhaps  not 
absolutely  straight  line  of  communication  be- 
tween the  objedlive  points,  as  nearly  as  com- 
patible with  the  topography  of  the  land  and  other 
natural  and  artificial  features.  A  possible  excep- 
tion to  the  principle  of  dire(ft  communication 
by  means  of  paths  and  drives  is  the  garden  walk, 
which  may  form  a  geometrical  pattern,  or  wind 
among  trees  and  shrubs.  Always  a  garden  walk 
or  path  should  continue  in  graceful  lines  in- 
definitely, or  arrive  at  a  certain  interesting  point. 
Never  should  it  terminate  suddenly  at  nothing 
in  particular. 

Material  for  drives  and  walks  are  of  stone, 
brick,  gravel,  cinders,  clay  and  concrete.  Con- 
crete is  the  most  serviceable,  but  should  not  be 
used  so  boldly  as  commonly  seen.  It  is  good 
policy  to  use  the  least  amount  of  concrete 
possible.  Brick  should  be  laid  in  cement  mortar 
with  a  solid  base  of  cinders  or  gravel  to  prevent 
the  walk  from  settling  and  becoming  overgrown 
with  vegetation.  Any  walk  or  drive  needs  a 
good  foundation.  The  more  pleasing  walks  and 
drives  are  made  of  gravel,  but  these  require  con- 
siderable attention  at  all  times.  They  should 
be  made  of  sand,  clay  and  gravel  mixed,  in  order 
to  insure  a  permanent  and  solid  footing.  Stone 
flagging  makes  excellent  garden  walks  in  vicini- 
ties where  stone  is  plentiful.  A  very  interesting 
walk  for  secondary  purposes  is  made  by  the  use 

281 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

of  Stepping-stones,  They  look  especially  well 
in  informal  gardens.  Stepping-stones  should 
be  twenty-two  inches  apart,  set  level  with  the 
turf,  in  order  that  a  lawn  mower  may  pass  freely 
over  them. 

Steps  have  a  fascination  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, when  used  in  the  open,  but  should  occur 
only  where  necessary,  and  not  in  wild,  natural 
gardens  unless  cut  in  outcropping  stone  or 
made  of  squared  logs.  Steps  are  necessary  at  a 
terrace,  and  should  have  flanking  walls  or 
balustrades  to  retain  the  earth.  In  long  flights 
of  steps  it  is  usually  best  to  maintain  a  certain 
width  throughout,  or,  the  flight  may  be  wider 
at  the  bottom.  A  long  flight  should  be  a  series 
of  flights  of  perhaps  seven  steps  each,  to  facili- 
tate climbing.  All  garden  and  outdoor  steps 
should  be  easy;  that  is,  they  should  have  about 
a  thirteen-inch  tread  and  a  five-inch  rise  in  order 
to  qiake  them  most  convenient  and  also  agree- 
able to  see. 

A  common  mistake  is  made  in  having  a  small 
terrace  at  the  front  edge  of  a  lawn,  instead  of  a 
gradual  slope  down  to  the  public  sidewalk. 
This  necessitates  one  or  two  steps  at  the  end  of 
the  front  walk  which  are  not  only  awkward  to 
use,  but  disagreeable  to  see.  On  pracftically 
level  suburban  lots  it  is  far  better  for  all  lawns 
to  slope  gradually  back  from  the  city  sidewalk, 
without  a  terrace.  Besides  helping  the  appear- 
ance of  each  lawn,  the  scheme  improves  the 
whole  street.  As  stated  before,  steps  are  in- 
teresting, but  should  be  dispensed  with  except 
where  required. 

282 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

Games. — Tennis  and  other  games  requiring 
courts,  fields  or  grounds  of  special  constru(5lion 
should  not  be  provided  except  in  very  large  es- 
tates, because  the  sport  is  not  of  sufficient  per- 
manent or  general  importance  to  warrant  the 
use  of  valuable  garden  or  lawn  space.  A  tennis 
court  on  a  large  site,  although  used  for  a  com- 
paratively short  time  each  year  for  perhaps  a 
period  of  years,  may  be  made  attra(5live  by 
planting  at  the  ends,  behind  the  backstop. 
The  proper  upkeep  of  a  court  is  difficult  and 
requires  much  labor.  A  court  in  disuse  is  not 
pleasant  to  see. 

Children*s  Pastimes. — Wherever  children  are 
to  play,  pastimes  should  be  provided.  These 
may  be  a  sandbox,  Flying  Dutchman,  swing, 
and  other  apparatus  used  in  children's  play- 
grounds. Rather  than  to  set  them  at  random 
on  the  lawn,  it  is  better  to  fit  them  in  snugly 
among  trees,  and  have  them  a  part  of  the  general 
scheme.  Children  enjoy  the  feeling  of  security 
or  protecflion  provided  by  nooks  in  out  of  the 
way  places,  and  seek  them  out  of  their  own 
accord. 

Ornamental  Architectural  Features. — Certain 
strucftures,  although  built  for  a  purpose,  may  be 
said  to  be  ornamental.  These,  above  all  other 
stru(5lures,  should  harmonize  with  the  dwelling 
and  echo  its  characfler.  Some  of  them  are  really 
additions  to  the  house,  such  as  the  pergola, 
which  may  extend  from  a  porch  to  a  garden  re- 
moved some  distance.  The  details  of  orna- 
mental garden  strucftures,  or  landscape  archi- 
te(5lure,  require  special  attention  on  account  of 

283 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  peculiar,  intimate  use  of  the  buildings,  and 
the  outdoor  livableness  necessary  to  be  imparted 
to  them.  The  details  must  be  such  as  to  con- 
form with  big  outdoor  things,  and  yet  be  delicate 
enough  to  express  refinement.    (See  Plate  45.) 

Garden  houses,  tea  houses,  summer  houses, 
and  shelters  are  among  the  larger  strucftures 
used  in  landscape  work.  Pavilions  are  also  rela- 
tively large.  They  may  be  connecfted  with  the 
dwelling  by  the  use  of  an  arbor  or  a  pergola, 
and  should  preferably  be  of  the  exa(5l  charadler 
of  the  main  building,  since  they  are  in  diredl 
relation  with  it.  A  garden  house,  by  its  minia- 
ture size,  gives  dignity  and  scale  to  the  dwelling. 
Garden  houses  are  best  placed  at  a  point  of 
vantage,  that  is  at  the  hub  of  the  garden,  or  at 
a  high  point  commanding  a  view.  Sometimes 
a  small  house  built  at  the  corner  of  masonry 
walls,  overlooking  a  valley,  is  especially  interest- 
ing. In  this  treatment  the  walls  of  the  garden 
become  two  of  the  walls  of  the  small  house,  but 
although  in  the  case  just  mentioned  the  house 
walls  extend  above  the  garden  walls  and  have 
openings  in  them  on  all  sides,  the  house  walls 
may  be  much  lower,  and  open  only  on  the  garden 
side.  This  amounts  to  a  summer  house  in  the 
angle  of  the  wall,  with  an  approach  from  the 
garden.  Occasionally  a  garden  house  may  take 
on  the  form  of  a  retreat  or  bower,  but  there  must 
be  more  to  it  than  simply  a  shady  spot:  in- 
terest is  essential;  either  a  distant  view,  a  gar- 
den view,  a  vista  or  a  stream  of  water.  The  bank 
of  a  creek  or  lake  is  an  ideal  place  for  a  struc- 
ture of  this  type,  with  a  balcony  overhanging 

284 


Plate  45 
Garden  Structures 


285 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

the  water  or  a  rail  at  the  common  edge  of  bank 
and  building.  More  formal  garden  houses,  or 
tea  houses  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  may 
be  built  on  the  far  side  of  a  large  terrace  which 
is  on  the  garden  side  of  the  dwelling.  Excep- 
tions to  the  principle  of  having  all  stru(5lures  on 
a  ground  of  the  same  charadler  may  be  made 
in  the  case  of  isolated  garden  houses.  These 
may  be  of  rustic  design,  either  in  stone  or  wood, 
if  the  environment  strongly  suggests  it. 

Pergolas  seem  to  have  originated  in  Italy, 
where  they  were  used  especially  for  grapes. 
Now  they  are  used  almost  everywhere,  with  the 
same  idea  of  growing  vines  of  some  sort  over 
them.  The  growth  is  essential  to  the  success 
of  the  stru(5lure.  Primarily,  a  pergola  should 
lead  to  a  definite  thing  or  place,  and  thereby 
be  a  connecfling  link  between  two  points,  one 
of  which  should  be  a  terminal  or  stopping  place. 
For  instance,  a  pergola  may  lead  from  the 
dwelling  to  the  garden  house,  or  from  the  garden 
house  to  the  rose  garden,  with  perhaps  a  gate 
at  the  end.  Sometimes  a  seat,  statue  or  sun- 
dial is  of  sufficient  value  in  the  garden  scheme 
to  be  the  terminal. 

Pergolas  consist  of  posts  made  either  of  wood  or 
masonry,  set  in  double  rows  to  support  overhead 
beams.  An  arbor  is  of  the  same  construcflion, 
but  usually  much  more  frail  or  light  in  construc- 
tion. The  overhead  beams  should  be  of  suffi- 
cient size  and  number  to  carry  the  particular 
kind  of  vine  contemplated  for  use.  Pergolas 
are  designed  for  the  most  part  to  support  such 
foliage  vines  as  the  grape  or  Virginia  creeper, 

286 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

and  such  flowering  vines  as  wistaria,  clematis, 
and  climbing  roses.  The  old-fashioned  arbor 
looks  best  as  a  bower  or  mass  of  foliage  and 
flowers.  In  regard  to  forms  for  pergolas,  they 
should  preferably  be  straight  and  on  level 
ground,  but  may  be  gracefully  curved  or  stepped 
down  with  terraces.  Always  they  should  be  of 
ample  height  and  breadth  for  actual  use.  For 
Italian  and  Colonial  gardens  the  posts  of  per- 
golas are  usually  white  classic  columns  of  wood 
or  stone  and  have  sawed  beams  overhead. 
Again  the  material  employed  depends  upon  the 
characfler  of  the  dwelling.  Piers  of  stone,  brick 
or  plaster,  and  squared  posts  of  wood  are  used 
in  the  construdlion,  but  the  beams  are  in  most 
instances  of  wood  for  pra(flical  reasons.  Rustic 
pergolas  made  of  the  trunks  of  trees  or  natural 
wood  posts  and  poles  for  beams  are  very  attrac- 
tive, and  may  be  of  oak,  cedar  or  other  wood. 
For  preserving  posts  set  in  the  ground,  the  best 
method  is  charring  the  ends  to  go  below  the  grade. 
The  pergola,  as  an  ornamental  structure  and  a 
useful  adjundl  of  the  house  and  garden,  is  highly 
satisfa<ftory. 

Statues,  sundials  and  fountains  belong  rather 
to  the  large,  formal  garden  than  to  the  small 
informal.  Such  ornaments,  if  used,  must  be 
of  best  design  and  material;  that  is,  of  marble 
or  stone,  and  of  distincflive  charadter.  Statues 
in  gardens  should  be  small  and  the  subje(5l 
simple.  Peter  Pan,  Cupids,  fairies,  boys  and 
grotesques  are  allowable.  Grotesque  statues 
and  gargoyles  in  sculpture  are  very  interesting. 
Statuary    should    be    given    a    background    of 

287 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

foliage  in  the  form  of  a  niche.  Sundials  are 
more  desirable  than  statues  as  garden  ornaments, 
and  instead  of  occupying  niches  usually  should 
be  placed  centrally  or  at  intersecftions  of  walks. 
They  should  be  of  stone,  and  modest  in  design. 
Invariably  a  base  should  be  provided  to  give 
the  sundial  a  substantial  appearance.  Foun- 
tains are  of  a  great  many  kinds.  The  more 
simple  are  very  desirable  as  focal  features  in 
gardens  and  as  points  of  interest  in  walls  of 
masonry.  A  well  with  a  bucket  or  a  handle 
pump  is  always  fascinating.  Closely  related  to 
statues,  sundials  and  fountains  are  vases  and 
urns.  These  may  be  used  quite  generally,  but 
should  not  be  overconspicuous.  Perhaps  pot- 
tery or  terra  cotta  is  the  best  material  for  them. 
Tubs  and  boxes,  if  properly  used,  are  desirable 
and  useful  garden  fixtures. 

Seats  are  the  most  intimate  of  all  strucftures 
used  in  the  garden,  and  most  homelike.  The 
humblest  garden  may  well  have  a  seat.  A  seat 
in  a  niche,  with  a  vine  behind  and  the  boughs 
of  a  tree  overhead  constitute  a  garden.  The  two 
essentials  in  locating  a  seat  are  a  background 
to  give  the  feeling  of  security,  and  a  foreground 
to  hold  the  attention.  Seats  should  not  be 
placed  in  uninviting  or  isolated  spots,  or  out  in 
the  open.  Simplicity  in  design  of  garden  seats 
is  necessary,  whether  they  are  constru(fted  of 
wood,  stone  or  other  material.  To  withstand 
the  ravages  of  weather,  they  must  be  substan- 
tial in  every  respedl. 

Walls  may  be  used  to  enclose  a  garden,  or  to 
retain  a  bank  of  earth.    They  are  very  attrac- 

288  .  ■ 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

tive  when  built  of  rough  stone  or  brick,  with 
the  mortar  joints  raked  out  and  the  surface 
covered  with  moss  and  vines.  Their  attracftive- 
ness  lies  in  their  ruggedness  and  durability,  and 
in  the  mass  of  bright  foliage  displayed  over  the 
dull  tone  of  their  material. 

Fences,  gates  and  turnstiles  are  not  the  least 
important  of  garden  strudlures,  and  on  account 
of  their  unpretentiousness  are  highly  desirable. 
What  is  more  suggestive  of  domesticity  than  a 
white  picket  fence  and  a  gate  with  a  bucket  of 
stones  on  a  chain  to  pull  it  to?  Although  these 
suggest  domesticity,  the  origin  is  quite  different, 
and  even  the  present  use.  They  were  once  a 
means  of  protecTtion  as  the  gate,  gate  house, 
drawbridge  and  moat  comprising  the  entrance 
fortification  of  a  castle.  At  the  present  time  a 
fence  is  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  out  invaders, 
either  mild  or  vicious,  and  the  gate  or  stile  is  a 
legitimate  means  of  getting  through  the  fence. 
Used  ornamentally,  they  mark  an  entrance  or 
become  a  focus  at  the  end  of  a  drive  or  walk. 

Gates  and  stiles,  both  turnstiles  and  step 
stiles,  when  used  on  unpretentious  grounds, 
should  be  of  wood  and  may  be  of  rustic  or  sawed 
timber  construdlion.  Gates  may  be  used  singly 
or  in  pairs.  As  with  seats,  the  design  should  be 
simple.  Wrought  iron  gates  are  most  often  used 
in  conne<flion  with  iron  fences  and  brick  or  stone 
walls.  They  present  an  appearance  decidedly 
pleasing  when  artistically  designed,  and  are 
very  durable  if  kept  painted.  A  gateway  may 
be  simply  an  opening  between  two  posts,  but 
really  suggests  a  gate.     Steps  leading  to  a  gate 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

or  gateway  add  a  charm,  especially  If  a  vista 
beyond  leads  to  an  interesting  termination. 
Where  especially  direcft,  pleasing  vistas  exist,  it 
is  well  not  to  make  the  gate  so  heavy  in  design  as 
to  form  a  screen  shutting  off  the  view. 

Water  in  the  Garden. — ^A  low  spot  on  an 
estate  suggests  the  possibility  of  having  a  lake, 
pond  or  perhaps  a  water  or  bog  garden.  Some- 
times grounds  have  the  advantage  of  a  spring  or 
flowing  creek,  or  even  a  river.  Water  in  the 
garden  opens  up  great  possibilities  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  whole,  since  green  and  growing 
things  seem  to  be  on  especially  familiar  terms 
with  water.  It  has  been  said  that  "fountains 
and  waters  are  the  soul  of  gardens,"  since  they 
enliven  and  revive  them.  Perhaps  the  great 
attra(5liveness  of  a  body  of  water  or  even  of  a 
stream  lies  not  only  in  the  freshness  imparted  by 
it,  but  also  in  the  many  sounds  emanating,  and 
in  the  refle(ftions  cast.  A  vast  number  of  water 
treatments  are  possible,  both  formal  and  in- 
formal. Extreme  treatments  are  best;  that  is,  a 
formal  fountain  or  pond  should  be  very  formally 
contained  within  its  confines  of  masonry,  and  a 
natural  creek  or  lake  should  be  left  absolutely 
in  its  natural  condition.  Water  should  be  kept 
in  motion,  and  debris  causing  contamination 
should  be  eliminated. 

Water  and  bog  gardens  are  somewhat  of  an 
exception  to  other  water  treatments,  in  that  stag- 
nant water  is  for  the  most  part  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  water  lilies  and  bog  plants.  A  bog  gar- 
den may  be  a  menace  on  account  of  mosquitoes 
and  the  tendency  of  the  water  to  become  foul. 

290 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

No  body  of  water,  however  small,  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  absolutely  stagnant  and 
wherever  bog  gardens  are  located  they  must  be 
well  isolated  from  houses.  Ordinarily  such  a 
garden  is  made  in  a  bayou  or  sheltered  bay  of  a 
creek,  and  is  especially  attracftive  in  connecflion 
with  a  rock  garden. 

Rock  Gardens. — In  natural  rock  localities,  or 
even  in  places  where  stone  would  not  look  out  of 
place,  rock  gardens  may  be  established.  These 
are  made  by  laying  or  rearranging  rock  in  such  a 
fashion  as  to  imitate  natural  strata,  with  winding 
paths  and  plantings  of  rock  plants,  called  Al- 
pines. For  satisfactory  results  and  permanent 
life  in  a  rock  garden  it  is  necessary  that  the  soil 
between  the  rocks  be  suitable.  It  should  con- 
sist of  sand,  leaf  mould  and  other  fertilizer,  and 
should  be  well  worked  and  tended  at  the  time  of 
construcfting  the  garden. 

Japanese  Gardens. — ^A  Japanese  garden  as 
adapted  from  the  original  consists  of  a  miniature 
lay-out  of  ponds,  paths,  bridges  and  other  land- 
scape features.  The  scale  should  be  sufficient  to 
allow  a  person  to  conveniently  pass  through  the 
garden,  but  it  should  suggest  unmistakable 
miniatureness.  A  Japanese  garden  should  be 
tucked  into  a  snug  place,  and  cut  off  from  the 
natural  environment  by  means  of  dense  foliage, 
thereby  causing  isolation  which  is  essential  to  the 
scale  or  size  of  it.  Gardens  of  this  type  may  be 
used  on  very  small  lots  where  there  is  not  room 
for  a  general  treatment.  The  important  con- 
sideration in  construdling  a  Japanese  garden  is 
the  relation  of  one  small  part  to  another,  since  to 

291 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

prevent  incongruity  it  is  necessary  that  each 
part  be  in  scale  with  others. 

Lawns. — Perhaps  the  most  important  feature 
of  landscape  gardening  is  the  most  simple, — the 
lawn.  Lawns  should  be  as  far  as  possible  in 
unbroken  stretches  and  expanses,  with  gentle 
slopes  to  carry  off  surface  water  and  to  give  the 
impression  of  naturalness.  Never  should  a  lawn 
be  interspersed  with  shrubs  or  flower  beds,  but 
may  have  shade  trees  with  branches  trimmed 
high  located  by  design  or  by  accident.  A  good 
lawn  is  acquired  only  after  a  number  of  years  of 
development,  beginning  with  proper  drainage, 
rich  soil  and  painstaking  cultivation.  The  care 
of  a  lawn  is  an  important  subjeift  in  itself. 

Trees. — ^Trees  hold  a  place  of  affe(5lion  in  the 
minds  of  all,  and  properly  determine  whether 
or  not  a  place  is  inviting.  Perhaps  the  great 
quality  of  trees  in  this  consideration  is  their  air  of 
friendliness,  since  shade  is  at  times  a  grateful 
relief.  The  best  tree  is  the  local  tree,  and  a 
natural  grove  excels  an  artificial  one.  Trees 
should  at  all  times  be  protecfted  from  natural 
loss  and  from  wilful  extermination,  since  a  tree 
once  destroyed  is  difficult  of  replacement.  Trees, 
then,  are  the  great  essential  adjuncft  of  houses. 
Preferably,  however,  trees  of  large  size  should  be 
at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  house  so  that 
their  shade  will  not  fall  upon  the  roof  of  it. 

Shrubs. — ^The  funcflion  of  shrubs  appears  to  be 
that  of  forming  a  softening  line  between  ground 
and  buildings,  and  between  pavements  and  turf, 
and  between  other  unlike  and  perhaps  difficult 
matters.    Therefore  shrubs  should  be  planted  at 

292 


GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS 

the  base  of  walls  or  along  the  edge  of  walks  and 
driveways,  in  order  that  they  may  perform  their 
funcftion.  The  size  and  natural  characfleristics  of 
shrubs  is  important  in  locating  them  in  certain 
places.  Ordinarily  the  full  grown  shrub  in 
combination  with  others  should  form  a  gradation 
in  size  or  color  or  perhaps  in  both,  so  as  to  un- 
abruptly  arrive  at  each  of  all  masses  which  the 
growth  is  designed  to  harmonize  or  hold  to- 
gether. Conventionally  trimmed  shrubs  and 
trees  are  out  of  place  in  any  garden. 

Flowers. — Flowers,  always  held  in  great  esteem, 
serve  a  definite  purpose  in  landscape  treatment. 
The  many  uses  of  them  are  well  known,  among 
which  are  beds,  borders  and  coverings  for  wall 
surfaces.  Their  method  of  growth,  time  of  bloom 
and  other  traits  must  be  carefully  considered  by 
the  gardener.  They  serve  as  the  ultimate  refine- 
ment for  the  home  grounds. 


aw 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Sketch  a  pergola  in  perspecflive. 

(2)  Draw  a  sundial. 

(3)  Sketch  a  shade  tree  and  a  garden  seat. 

References 

Jekyll  and  Weaver. — Gardens  for  Small  Country  Houses. 
Kellaway. — How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds. 
Ferree. — American  Estates  and  Gardens. 
Elgood. — Italian  Gardens. 
Blanchan. — American  Flower  Gardens, 
Tabor, — The  Landscape  Gardening  Book, 
Humphreys. — The  Pradlical  Book  of  Garden  Architec- 
ture. 
Tabor. — ^The  Garden  Primer. 
Hunn  and  Bailey. — The  Pradtical  Garden  Book. 
Hamblin. — Book  of  Garden  Plans. 
Holland. — ^The  Garden  Bluebook. 
Bailey. — Garden  Making. 
Shelton. — Continuous  Bloom  in  America. 


394 


CHAPTER  XVIII.  GARDEN  DESIGN  AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

INTRODUCTION. — In  the  aa:ual  laying  out 
of  a  garden,  whether  done  by  a  land- 
scape architecfl,  a  gardener  or  the  owner, 
a  certain  method  of  procedure  employing 
drawings  has  been  found  to  be  necessary  in  order 
to  gain  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Even 
though  the  garden  be  very  small  indeed  a 
similar  procedure  is  advantageous.  It  is  best 
to  acflually  make  the  various  drawings  here 
described,  but  for  very  small  garden  plots  the 
principles  of  design  and  construcftion  may  be 
borne  in  mind  and  the  work  carried  on  with 
perhaps  only  small  sketches  as  a  guide.  Ordina- 
rily, a  survey  of  the  plot,  shown  by  a  topograph- 
ical map,  a  sketch  plan  of  the  garden  as  it  is  to 
be,  a  grading  plan  showing  where  and  how  the 
earth's  surface  is  to  be  graded,  and  a  planting 
plan  showing  the  location  and  variety  of  all 
plants  to  be  used  are  essential  in  the  laying  out  of 
a  large  garden  or  grounds.  When  buildings  are 
not  yet  upon  the  site  they  should  be  located  on 
the  preliminary  sketches  and  construcfted  exadlly 
where  shown,  in  order  to  have  a  wholly  har- 
monious garden.  When  buildings  are  already 
upon  the  site  the  garden  must  necessarily  be 
built  around  them. 

Survey. — A  survey  is  made  with  the  aid  of 
instruments  to  determine  the  property  lines,  the 
angles  formed  at  the  corners,  the  exadl  elevation 
of  all  parts  of  the  lot  which  may  vary  con- 
siderably and  the  location  of  all  obje(5ls  such  as 
buildings,   trees,   posts   and  other  natural   and 

29S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

artificial  features.  In  making  a  survey  the 
record  or  information  gained  is  set  down  in 
tabulated  form  and  is  later  plotted  according  to 
a  scale  graduated  on  a  decimal  system,  that  is, 
each  inch  representing  lo,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,  70, 
80  or  100  feet.  The  survey  of  any  property  to 
be  used  as  a  home  site  is  important  in  that  it 
positively  describes  the  property  of  the  owner. 
Since  it  shows  the  exacfl  physical  conditions  of 
the  lot,  it  is  used  as  a  base  upon  which  to  design 
or  lay  out  the  grounds. 

Topographical  Drawings. — ^Although  the  plot 
of  a  survey  may  show  only  the  boundary  lines  of 
the  lot  and  the  angles  formed,  a  topographical 
map  shows  all  of  the  features  of  the  property  or 
is  made  up  from  the  data  obtained  from  the 
survey.  A  contour  or  profile  is  a  cross-se(5lion  of 
the  property  on  any  given  line  and  shows  posi- 
tively the  elevation  of  the  ground  upon  that 
line.  The  purpose  of  a  contour  or  profile  map  is 
to  determine  in  what  diredtion  the  water  flows 
naturally  for  drainage  purposes  and  to  determine 
the  amount  of  excavation  of  earth  necessary  in 
changing  the  natural  grade  to  the  finished  grade 
required  in  the  laying  out  of  the  garden.  For 
instance,  if  it  is  desired  to  build  a  terrace  on 
the  side  of  a  hill,  it  would  be  necessary  to  draw 
one  or  more  contour  maps  of  that  hill,  and  also 
the  finished  terrace  to  be  cut  into  the  hill,  and 
thus  to  equalize  the  natural  and  artificial  condi- 
tions so  that  no  unnecessary  moving  and  hauling 
away  of  earth  would  be  necessary.  In  other 
words,  the  finished  condition  of  a  garden  should 
represent,  if  possible,  the  same  amount  of  earth 

296 


GARDEN  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

that  was  upon  the  lot  originally,  and  should 
necessitate  the  minimum  removing  and  replacing 
of  earth  or  soil.  In  regard  to  the  term  "eleva- 
tion" the  word  means  the  distance  of  a  certain 
point  on  the  ground  above  or  below  some  other 
established  point  whose  distance  above  sea  level 
is  known.  This  known  elevation  is  called 
"datum,"  which  in  the  scheme  of  measurement 
of  elevations  is  called  o  feet.  All  distances  above 
datum  are  plus  (+)  a  certain  number  of  feet 
and  all  distances  below  datum  are  minus  ( — )  a 
certain  number  of  feet.  Quite  often  datum  repre- 
sents the  level  of  the  sea.  The  exacft  elevation 
of  datum  is  defined  in  each  locality.  On  topo- 
graphical maps  various  features  are  indicated 
by  conventional  signs  that  are  established  and 
adopted  as  a  standard  system.  By  observing 
these  signs  all  the  features  indicated  on  a  map 
may  be  understood  without  special  description. 
Garden  Design. — ^To  design  a  garden  or 
grounds  of  more  than  a  tiny  plot,  a  topographical 
map  showing  the  present  condition  of  the  prop- 
erty should  be  at  hand.  Upon  the  lot  all  required 
buildings  should  be  laid  out  according  to  the 
contour  of  the  land  and  with  the  idea  of  preserv- 
ing the  natural  advantages  of  the  site.  Approach 
and  view  are  perhaps  the  vital  considerations. 
The  flow  of  water  is  one  of  the  important  points, 
since  it  is  necessary  to  provide  drainage  and  out- 
lets for  every  part  of  the  property.  A  site  on 
the  side  of  a  steep  hill  requires  special  con- 
strucftion  for  preventing  surface  water  from  flow- 
ing down  the  hill  in  small  torrents  and  washing 
with  it  the  soil  of  the  garden.     Retaining  walls, 

297 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

underground  tiles,  gutters  or  other  devices  are 
here  necessary.  It  is  highly  important  that  all 
the  drainage  water  be  condu(5led  away  from  the 
dwelling  since  a  basement  is  like  a  well,  and 
attracfts  seepage  water.  Slopes  of  lawns  and 
terraces  should  not  be  made  so  steep  that  water 
will  wash  out  small  gullies  in  the  soil.  The 
nature  of  the  soil  itself  has  much  to  do  with  this 
tendency.  Perhaps  the  ordinary  angle  for  ter- 
race slopes  is  three  feet  of  rise  to  five  feet  of  run. 
This  is  a  convenient  slope,  since  to  climb  it  by 
a  flight  of  steps  requires  six  risers  of  six  inches 
each  and  five  treads  of  twelve  inches  each. 
Lawns  should  be  given  mild  or  easy  slopes  rather 
than  steep  slopes  unless  physically  impossible. 
Driveways  and  walks  should  never  be  steep, 
the  more  nearly  level  the  better.  In  gravel 
walks  and  drives  especially,  rain  water  tends  to 
wash  out  small  ruts,  which  eventually  ruins 
the  surface. 

After  the  buildings  are  located,  bearing  in 
mind,  of  course,  the  approach,  the  view,  and 
the  garden  features  that  are  to  follow,  circula- 
tion or  means  of  reaching  all  parts  of  the  grounds 
conveniently  must  be  provided.  Circulation  is 
brought  about  by  the  use  of  drives  and  walks 
which  enter  at  certain  convenient  places,  and 
lead  direcftly  to  certain  other  places  or  wind  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  provide  an  outlet.  It  is 
usually  essential  to  provide  a  driveway,  a  front 
walk  and  a  tradesmen's  entrance.  The  location 
of  these  depends  entirely  upon  the  site.  The 
main  walks  and  the  drives  should  preferably 
follow  along  the  edges  of  the  property  rather 

298 


GARDEN  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

than  cut  through  the  centre  of  broad  open  spaces, 
but  only  to  the  degree  of  reaching  the  desired 
point  without  leading  far  out  of  the  diredl  route. 
This  in  most  cases  would  be  accomplished  by  a 
graceful  curve,  avoiding  the  open  space  by  grad- 
ually swinging  in  to  the  dwelling.  Drives  and 
walks  invariably  look  better  when  they  appear 
to  creep  along  the  base  of  a  wall,  fence  or  dense 
growth,  or  wind  among  trees,  than  when  they 
strike  boldly  through  the  open.  As  to  excep- 
tions, it  is  a  question  whether  a  front  walk  lead- 
ing from  the  street  in  a  straight  line  to  the  front 
entrance  is  better  than  a  front  walk  which  enters 
at  a  less  conspicuous  point  and  approaches  the 
entrance  more  obscurely.  Perhaps  the  solution 
lies  in  the  general  aspe(5l  of  the  house  and 
grounds  desired.  The  most  formal  treatment 
permits  the  use  of  the  dire<ft  approach.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  however,  the  less  conspicuous 
approach  is  best.  The  formal  approach  is  used 
for  pretentious  and  public  buildings,  and,  in 
connecftion  with  long  tree-lined  avenues,  is  very 
effecftive  for  country  homes. 

All  of  the  useful  and  ornamental  stru(5tures 
of  a  garden  should  be  pulled  together  and  made 
into  a  unit  by  the  use  of  paths,  vistas,  hedges, 
fences  and  plantings  of  various  kinds.  The  for- 
mal spot,  usually  desirable,  may  be  a  flower 
garden  of  geometrical  lay-out,  a  fountain  and 
walks  or  other  unpretentious  design  of  some  sort. 
The  reason  or  the  necessity  of  a  small  or  large 
formal  spot  in  the  grounds  seems  to  lie  in  the 
facft  that  an  intensive  development  somewhere 
appears  to  be  required  to  show  the  human  ele- 

299 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

merit  of  gardens  and  to  give  to  its  whole  compo- 
sition the  quahty  of  scale  or  proportion.  The 
small  spot  highly  cultivated  and  showing  evi- 
dence of  skillful  work  with  the  hands  brings  the 
idea  of  personality  into  the  general  scheme  of 
things.  This  truth  is  exemplified  when  the  lack 
of  personality  is  noted  in  the  observance  of  large 
public  parks  of  natural  beauty,  and  even  in 
large  formal  city  parks  where  floriculture  is 
pracfticed  on  the  grand  scale.  On  drawings  of 
home  grounds  the  small  geometrical  or  formal 
garden  spot  seems  to  be  necessary  to  give  to  the 
sketch  that  peculiar  interest  obtained  by  accent- 
ing a  small  part  which  holds  the  attention.  To 
the  trained  eye,  that  which  is  fascinating  in  a 
design  worked  out  on  paper  is  also  fascinating 
in  the  executed  design  or  the  real  objecft.  (See 
Plate  47.) 

In  garden  designing  after  the  buildings  and 
all  other  features  are  indicated  where  they  seem 
to  be  of  greatest  importance  from  the  stand- 
point of  utility  and  beauty,  the  harsh  lines  are 
softened  by  plantings.  This  is  to  say  that  in 
nooks  and  corners,  along  the  sides  of  the  ap- 
proaches and  against  the  building,  and  also 
in  the  spaces  left  for  beds,  vines,  shrubs  and 
flowers  are  placed.  In  more  roomy  places,  if 
trees  are  not  already  present  they  should  be 
discriminately  used.  Trees  should  frame  a  house 
and  should  form  a  background  for  it  but  should 
not  enclose  it.  It  is  necessary  that  views  out- 
ward from  the  house  be  provided  and  that 
glimpses  inward  be  left  for  observers. 

In  general,  garden  designing  consists  of  mak- 
300 


GARDEN  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

ing  over  in  as  moderate  a  degree  as  possible  the 
natural  conditions  employing  local  materials  as 
far  as  possible  and  embellishing  the  whole  with 
beauty  which  is  really  artificial  but  appears  to 
be  natural.  As  in  all  composition,  the  well- 
known  elements  of  design  must  be  considered. 
The  efi"e(fts  should  be  simple  and  harmonious 
and  the  various  parts  must  constitute  one  pleas- 
ing unit.    (See  Plate  46.) 

Grading. — ^Assuming  that  a  garden  is  to  be 
constru(fled  according  to  a  preconceived  plan 
which  has  been  set  down,  the  soil  would  be 
graded  exacftly  according  to  the  elevations  in- 
dicated on  a  grading  plan.  This  drawing  would 
have  indicated  upon  it  the  original  elevations 
of  the  ground  and  the  finished  elevations,  repre- 
sented in  such  a  way  as  to  readily  show  the 
amount  of  excavation  and  fill  of  earth  needed 
in  each  and  every  part.  No  natural  asset  of 
the  property,  such  as  trees,  rocks  and  water 
must  be  damaged  during  the  process  of  grading. 
Top  soil  which  is  valuable  for  growing  purposes 
must  be  preserved  for  distribution  at  the  finish 
of  the  grading  process.  First  of  all  the  large 
masses  of  earth  to  be  moved  should  be  handled 
as  cheaply  as  possible  by  the  use  of  heavy  ma- 
chinery. When  the  site  begins  to  assume  its 
general  finished  appearance,  stakes  should  be 
driven  into  the  soil  in  such  a  way  that  the  top 
of  each  stake  marks  the  grade  to  which  that 
particular  part  of  the  ground  is  to  be  brought. 
The  grading  should  then  proceed  carefully  until 
all  parts  are  properly  made.  Where  drives  and 
walks  are  to  be  placed  a  small  excavation  of 

301 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

perhaps  six  or  eight  inches  should  be  left.  Much 
work  by  hand  is  necessary  in  the  finishing  of  a 
grading  projecfl,  in  order  to  secure  perfecft  con- 
tours and  perfe(5l  distribution  of  top  soil.  Grad- 
ing, except  for  general  distribution  of  excavated 
earth  from  the  basement  of  strucftures  is  not 
begun  until  all  buildings  of  the  premises  have 
been  eredled.  In  order  to  test  the  grading  of 
a  garden  site  it  is  well  to  wait  for  a  heavy  rain 
or  apply  water  artificially  to  determine  its  flow, 
or  a  surveyor's  level  may  be  employed  as  a  means 
of  checking  the  work  to  find  out  any  imperfec- 
tions in  grading.  No  sinkage  should  be  left  with- 
out a  special  drain. 

Planting. — ^The  sele(5lion  of  species  and  the 
planting  of  trees,  shrubs,  vines  and  flowers  is 
the  work  of  a  landscape  gardener.  So  complex 
and  so  varied  are  the  conditions  pertaining  to  the 
subject  that  only  general  considerations  may 
here  be  mentioned.  Flowers  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  charadleristics,  usually  as  an- 
nuals whose  life  from  the  seed  is  one  year, 
biennials,  whose  life  from  the  seed  is  two  years, 
and  hardy  perennials  whose  life  from  the  seed 
is  more  than  two  years,  or  permanent.  In 
selecftion  of  plants  for  certain  purposes  it  is  the 
ultimate  growth  of  the  plant  rather  than  the 
size  at  the  time  of  planting  that  is  important, 
and  the  time  of  blooming  and  the  color  of  blooms 
and  foliage.  The  harmony  of  plants  and  the 
contrast  of  certain  plants  as  well  as  the  rota- 
tion of  blooms  and  foliage  throughout  the  season 
are  important  fadlors  in  seledlion  of  plants  for 
use. 

30i 


1^5    I'v^-s^s^M  n  •/■•■ 


Plate  46 
Miscellaneous  Garden  Features 


303 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Trees. — ^Trees  require  a  great  many  years  to 
reach  maturity.  The  favorite  shade  trees  of 
America  are  the  oak,  especially  the  white  oak, 
hard  maple,  and  the  elm.  Other  trees  make 
beautiful  lawn  and  garden  trees,  but  do  not 
hold  the  universal,  great  regard  given  to  the  ones 
named.  The  life  of  a  good  hard-wood  tree  is 
ordinarily  a  hundred  years  or  more.  Certain 
trees  of  the  forest  have  been  found  to  be  several 
thousand  years  old.  Quite  often  shade  trees  are 
killed  by  improper  usage.  They  require  atten- 
tion in  order  that  they  may  thrive.  Earth  must 
cover  the  roots  at  all  times,  but  not  be  heaped 
up  around  the  trunk.  Constant  tramping  of  feet 
at  the  base  of  a  tree,  as  well  as  rubbing  and  break- 
ing of  the  bark,  will  eventually  kill  the  tree.  In 
setting  out  shade  trees  it  is  well  to  use  as  large  a 
tree  or  sapling  as  possible,  in  order  to  save  several 
years'  growth.  For  planting  trees  it  is  well  to 
employ  an  expert. 

Among  the  beautiful  garden  trees  are  the 
beech,  birch,  catalpa,  cedar,  chestnut,  linden, 
locust,  magnolia,  mulberry,  pine,  sycamore, 
thorn,  tulip,  walnut  and  willow. 

Shrubs  and  Hardy  Vines. — For  foundation 
planting  and  boundary  planting,  there  are  a 
large  number  of  shrubs  and  vines  from  which 
plants  may  be  selecfled.  A  previously  designed 
planting  plan  should  indicate  the  variety,  number 
and  location  of  all  plants  to  be  used  to  produce 
in  the  end  a  permanent  growth  and  a  color 
scheme  dependent  upon  the  color  and  season  of 
foliage,  blooms  and  berries.  Vines  occupy  the 
position  nearest  the  wall,  fence,  or  trellis,  and 

304 


Plate  47 
Lay-out  of  a  Suburban  Grounds 


305 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

should  be  given  full  opportunity  to  develop 
before  shrubbery  destroys  them. 

Among  the  permanent  vines,  blooming  in 
the  order  here  listed,  are  the  following:  wistaria, 
wild  grape,  climbing  roses,  trumpet  creeper, 
clematis,  Virginia  creeper,  ivy,  evergreen  bitter- 
sweet and  myrtle.  The  charadlerlstlcs  of  these 
vines  are  listed  in  many  places  where  the  sub- 
jecft  is  thoroughly  discussed. 

The  shrubs  are  almost  innumerable.  For 
northern  exposure  dogwood,  sumach,  common 
elder,  wild  black  currant,  blueberry,  and  nanny 
berry  are  good  growers.  Shrubs  that  grow 
rather  high  are  common  elder,  high  bush  blue- 
berry, arrow  wood,  high  bush  cranberry,  redbud, 
winterberry  and  black  haw.  Shrubs  that  are 
prickly  and  are  therefore  good  for  hedges  and 
for  nesting  of  birds  are  prickly  ash,  certain 
kinds  of  roses,  cat  briar,  and  low  running  black- 
berry. For  feeding  birds  some  shrubs  are  very 
useful.  Among  these  are  dogwood,  sumach, 
June  berry,  spice  bush  and  black  currant. 

Flowers. — Borders  along  paths  and  drives  may 
be  preferably  of  small  shrubs,  or  may  be 
of  annuals,  biennials  and  perennials.  Very 
often  mixed  plants  are  best.  Each  of  the  little 
garden  flowers  known  to  everyone  has  a  place 
where  it  may  profitably  and  pleasurably  be 
grown.  Perhaps  the  two  most  agreeable  little 
annuals,  one  for  beds  and  borders,  the  other 
for  climbing  purposes,  are  nasturtiums  and  sweet 
peas. 

Early  spring  flowers,  especially  bulbous  plants, 
may  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  lawn,  since  after 

3(36 


'^C^^  C^r^^O  Q^^n  ^^^?i 


Plate  48 
Plan  of  a  Farm  Grounds 


307 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

they  bloom  they  are  no  longer  seen.  Carnations 
and  many  other  kinds  of  flowers  that  are  usually 
considered  to  be  cut  flowers  may  be  raised  in  a 
very  small  glass  covered  sun  garden  or  a  small 
greenhouse. 

Conclusion. — In  general,  a  grounds  planted 
with  hardy  vines  and  shrubs  that  require  little 
attention  and  grow  informally,  is  more  pleasing 
and  more  satisfa(ftory  than  a  grounds  in  which  it 
is  necessary  to  keep  up  flower  beds,  and  to  re- 
plant and  transplant  continually.  There  is 
also  more  satisfacftion  in  awaiting  the  turn  of 
growth  and  bloom  of  each  kind  of  plant  in  the 
garden,  since  year  after  year  it  makes  its  ap- 
pearance for  a  while  and  gradually  gives  way 
to  a  variety  that  may  follow  it.  Hedges  require 
constant  pruning  and  produce  a  rather  formal 
appearance.  All  in  all,  plants  should  grow  to 
their  natural  size  and  live  on  without  more  in- 
terference than  is  absolutely  necessary. 


308 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Assume  a  suburban  home  grounds  one  hundred 
feet  square  with  streets  on  two  sides  and  a  house  forty 
feet  square  in  the  exadt  centre  of  it.  The  house  is  of  an  old- 
fashioned  or  Colonial  type  with  a  hall  through  the  centre. 
Add  new  porches  to  the  building  and  lay  out  a  sketch  plan 
of  the  grounds  showing  garden  treatment  at  the  scale  of 
I"  =  20'  o." 

It  may  be  further  assumed  that  the  grounds  are  level  and 
that  there  is  nothing  whatever  upon  the  site  other  than  the 
house. 

(2)  Re-design  a  grounds  with  which  you  are  especially 
familiar  showing  drive,  walks,  and  plantings  as  they  should 
be.    Use  very  small  scale. 

(3)  Lay  out  an  old-fashioned  flower  garden  assuming 
a  small  plot  before  the  door  of  a  Colonial  cottage. 

References 
Same  as  given  at  end  of  Chapter  XVII. 


309 


CHAPTER  XIX.    THE  ENGLISH  IDEA  OF 
SMALL  HOUSES 

INTRODUCTION. — English  people  are  more 
economical  than  are  Americans  in  every 
respecfl  except  in  that  of  labor.  In  their 
domestic  architecflure  the  fact  is  exem- 
plified. Instead  of  designing  a  house  so  that 
the  work  of  housekeeping  may  be  reduced  to 
the  minimum,  they  make  little  effort  to  secure 
convenience.  With  them  it  does  not  seem 
necessary  to  save  steps,  because  manual  labor 
is  plentiful  and  cheap.  Even  a  family  in  very 
modest  circumstances  can  afford  at  least  one 
domestic.  The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  of 
a  typical  cottage  will  show  the  result  of  this 
economic  condition.  In  regard  to  compa(5l- 
ness  of  plan,  the  use  of  materials  and  equip- 
ment of  buildings,  great  economy  is  manifest. 
Since  fuel  is  dear,  special  care  is  taken  to  con- 
strudt  the  house  so  that  it  will  be  warm,  and  to 
arrange  the  fireplaces,  chimneys  and  other  de- 
tails pertaining  to  heating  so  that  the  greatest 
benefit  with  the  least  consumption  of  fuel  will 
be  attained. 

In  England  the  small  house  is  called  a  cottage, 
and  although  some  rather  large  country  houses 
are  called  cottages,  the  term  really  applies  to  the 
workman's  cottage,  the  middle  class  cottage, 
and  the  "week-end"  cottage.  Workmen's  cot- 
tages are  usually  built  in  blocks  of  from  two  to 
twenty,  more  often  of  from  two  to  four.  By  this 
arrangement  outside  wall  constru(ftion  is  reduced, 
and  consequently  the  building  cost  is  less.  Work- 
men's cottages  usually  consist  of  only  two  or 

310 


THE  ENGLISH  IDEA  OF  SMALL  HOUSES 

three  rooms  on  the  ground  floor,  and  one  or  two 
on  the  upper  floor.  Ordinarily  there  is  no  base- 
ment, hall,  vestibule  or  porch. 

On  small  places  or  "holdings"  middle  class 
cottages  may  have  as  many  as  ten  rooms,  per- 
haps six  on  the  ground  floor  and  four  in  the 
attic.  The  term  "first  floor"  is  not  used  by 
the  English,  except  sometimes  as  the  first  floor 
over  the  ground  floor.  The  "week-end"  cot- 
tage is  usually  a  cottage  in  the  country  made 
over  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  owner,  who 
with  family  or  friends  comes  for  a  few  days  at  a 
time  for  an  outing.  This  type  of  country  place 
is  not  very  popular  with  the  Englishman,  be- 
cause of  the  inconvenience  usually  attendant 
upon  the  trip  to  it,  because  of  the  lack  of 
comfort  while  there,  and  because  of  the  lack 
of  service,  it  being  difficult  to  maintain  do- 
mestics in  such  an  isolated  and  seldom  used 
house. 

Ordinarily  the  "week-end"  cottage  consists 
of  a  very  large  living  room,  and  small  service 
rooms,  with  sleeping  chambers  above,  and  a 
verandah  at  the  sunny  side  of  the  living  room. 
Some  country  places  of  this  type  are  liberally 
equipped  with  servants'  quarters,  a  stable, 
a  garage,  a  lodge,  and  other  buildings,  but  under 
these  circumstances  the  term  "cottage"  can  no 
longer  be  aptly  applied. 

Arrangements  of  Middle  Class  Cottages. — In 
the  matter  of  a<ftual  use  the  middle  class  cot- 
tage of  England  more  nearly  resembles  the 
American  suburban  house  than  any  other  type. 
For  that  reason  the  arrangement  is  interesting 

3" 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

to  US.  A  small  cottage  may  contain  a  living 
room,  a  kitchen,  a  scullery,  coals,  a  larder,  and  a 
stairway  leading  to  the  bedrooms  in  the  second 
story.  A  large  cottage  may  contain  a  hall, 
drawing  room,  sitting  room,  dining  room,  but- 
ler's pantry,  rear  hall,  servants'  sitting  room, 
kitchen,  scullery,  coals,  larder,  store,  and  a 
stairway  to  bedrooms  and  bath  above.  The  main 
difference  between  the  English  cottage  and  our 
suburban  house  is  quite  often  in  the  great  dis- 
tance in  the  former  between  the  kitchen  and 
the  dining  room.  In  the  front  part  of  the  house 
may  be  the  living  apartments  consisting  only  of  a 
hall,  a  parlor  and  a  dining  room,  while  removed 
from  them  by  means  of  a  long  service  hall  and 
pantry  is  the  kitchen  with  a  scullery  and  other 
accessories  behind.  There  is  an  advantage  in 
having  the  culinary  operations  carried  on  at  a 
distance  from  the  living  apartments,  but  in  order 
to  serve  a  meal  in  the  dining  room,  several  serv- 
ants are  necessary.  The  English  arrangement 
of  rooms  is  from  the  standpoint  of  comfort  almost 
exclusively.     (See  Plate  49.) 

In  the  large  cottages,  a  development  of  the 
early  Tudor  house  is  quite  marked,  one  room 
being  added  to  another,  disregarding  symmetry 
of  plan.  A  very  livable  and  picturesque  house 
is  thereby  obtained.  Doors  and  windows  are 
placed  where  most  serviceable,  fireplaces  are 
located  out  of  the  line  of  travel,  and  drafts 
are  avoided.  In  spite  of  the  informality  of  plan, 
some  houses  have  a  formal  aspedl  upon  entering 
the  hall,  especially  those  that  have  a  drawing 
room  or  parlor   for   receiving   guests.      Dining 

312 


THE  ENGLISH  IDEA  OF  SMALL  HOUSES 

rooms  quite  often  have  adjuncfts  such  as  smok- 
ing rooms,  bilHard  rooms  and  wine  cellars.  In 
most  houses  where  the  proprietor  is  a  profes- 
sional man,  the  office  or  study  is  located  con- 
veniently near  the  hall,  or  has  a  special  entrance 
for  it.  English  kitchens  are  used  for  preparing 
foods  and  cooking  them;  the  cleaning  is  done 
in  the  scullery.  Always  a  larder  for  the  storage 
of  perishable  food  stuffs  is  provided,  and  usually 
a  store  for  shelving  dry  food  stuffs.  A  very 
good  arrangement  is  in  having  a  "pent  shelter" 
or  back  porch  at  the  rear  of  the  scullery,  from 
which  a  water-closet  is  reached.  In  almost  all 
cottage  establishments,  a  walled  or  fenced  yard 
is  provided  at  the  rear  for  general  utilitarian 
purposes,  and  on  some  "holdings"  a  covered 
way  leads  to  the  outbuildings  such  as  "roosts," 
"cow  byres,"  "piggeries"  and  other  strucftures. 
(See  Plate  49.) 

Appliances  and  Built-in  Features. — English 
cottages  are  not  well  equipped  with  heating, 
plumbing  and  lighting  apparatus  except  in  a 
few  instances.  However,  in  recent  years  the 
American  methods  of  equipment  have  been 
used.  Most  of  the  cottages  are  heated  by  means 
of  fireplaces,  each  room  having  a  grate.  In 
small  cottages  the  chimney  stack  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  building  and  all  flues  are  en- 
closed within  it.  Thus  the  chimney  itself  helps 
to  warm  the  house.  Fireplaces  are  used  for 
ventilation,  which  consideration  is  very  im- 
portant to  the  Englishman.  A  room  not  having 
a  fireplace  must  have  other  special  ventilator. 
Coal,  peat  and  charcoal  are  used  for  fuel,  but 

313 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

since  these  are  high  in  price,  it  is  necessary  to 
be  economical  in  the  use  of  them. 

Although  some  cottages  are  well  provided 
with  bath,  modern  plumbing  and  lighting  fix- 
tures, the  majority  of  them,  especially  the  iso- 
lated ones,  use  makeshift  appliances.  A  very 
interesting  contrivance  for  bathing  or  taking 
the  "weekly  tub"  consists  of  a  sinkage  in  the 
scullery  floor  with  a  trapdoor  to  cover  it.  After 
a  bath  the  door  is  used  to  stand  upon,  and  is  a 
draining  board.  Such  a  bath  is  placed  in  front 
of  the  cooking  stove  or  near  a  "copper,"  where 
water  may  be  conveniently  heated.  The  fuel 
used  to  heat  the  water  also  heats  the  room.  Port- 
able baths  are  also  used,  which  when  not  in  use 
before  the  fire  are  stowed  away  in  a  closet.  The 
better  middle  class  cottages  have  a  bathroom 
on  the  upper  floor  containing  a  tub  and  lavatory. 

Built-in  furniture  is  used  rather  extensively. 
One  of  the  most  pi(5turesque  "fitments"  is  the 
old-fashioned  bench  used  often  in  chimney 
corners.  It  has  a  high  back  and  ends  or  "draft 
wings"  to  insure  comfort  for  the  occupant. 
Tables  and  seats  built  against  the  wall  are 
common,  and  "parlor  dressers"  or  "consoles" 
are  seen  in  many  old  cottages.  Wainscotings 
and  beamed  ceilings  are  everywhere  in  evidence, 
usually  of  oak  or  dark  stained  wood,  as  the  other 
trim.  The  most  common  feature  in  the  English 
cottage  is  the  bay  window,  which  may  be  of 
any  shape.  This  detail  in  most  cases  is  very 
pi(5luresque  and  useful  as  well.  Ingle  nooks  con- 
taining the  fireplace  are  quite  common,  and  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  niches  are  usually  pro- 

314 


Plate  49 
Typical  English  Cottage 


3  IS 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

vided  to  accommodate  the  cook  stove,  allowing 
a  brick  or  tile  hearth  in  front  of  it. 

Cottage  windows  are  of  the  casement  variety 
almost  exclusively,  and  very  often  arranged  in 
groups  of  three  or  more  with  only  narrow  mul- 
lions  between.  The  appearance  is  exceptionally 
good.  Instead  of  putting  a  wood  trim  or  casing 
around  the  window  opening,  the  jambs  in  many 
cases  are  of  plaster  with  splayed  or  beveled  face. 
The  reveal  or  thickness  of  wall  not  used  by  the 
window  frame  may  be  on  the  inside  instead  of 
the  outside  of  the  wall.  Wood  stools  or  "win- 
dow boards"  are  very  often  provided  on  the 
interior  for  plants.  The  doors  used  in  English  cot- 
tages .are  very  interesting,  being  constru<fted  in- 
dividually for  the  most  part,  of  boards  or  bat- 
tens, and  are  not  of  the  stock  variety  of  paneled 
door.  These  "ledged  doors"  are  very  service- 
able. Staircases  frequently  ascend  behind  the 
living  room  fireplace,  especially  in  old-fashioned 
cottages.  The  flight  of  steps  is  almost  invariably 
steep  and  crooked,  which  may  add  to  the  pic- 
turesqueness,  but  detra(fts  from  convenience. 

Building  Materials. — Originally  the  cottage 
in  many  parts  of  England  was  constru<fted  of 
clay  for  walls  and  thatch  for  roof.  Cottages  of 
this  type,  very  crude  to  be  sute,  still  exist  and 
are  comfortable  except  for  vermin,  which  find  a 
refuge  in  the  roof.  Thatch  more  scientifically 
applied  is  pra(5lical  for  modern  cottages,  but 
not  much  used  on  account  of  the  reasonable 
cheapness  of  newer  materials.  At  the  p^resent 
time  many  kinds  of  tile  and  some  slate  are  the 
chief  roof  materials.     For  walls  are  used  brick, 

316 


THE  ENGLISH  IDEA  OF  SMALL  HOUSES 

Stone  and  concrete,  also  cement  plaster  on  a 
background  of  cheap  masonry.  Tiles  and  slate 
are  used  on  exterior  walls  as  well  as  on  roofs. 
The  building  materials  employed  are  charadler- 
ized  by  their  extreme  durability,  in  contrast  to 
the  flimsily  construcfled  small  houses  of  America. 
Appearance. — English  cottages,  whether  lo- 
cated in  the  hills  or  valleys,  or  in  suburban  dis- 
tridls,  appear  to  fit  the  landscape.  Usually  the 
exposure  is  carefully  considered,  the  northerly 
walls  being  made  secure  against  cold  winds  by 
reducing  window  area,  while  the  southerly  walls 
are  provided  with  large  groups  of  windows. 
Shrubbery  invariably  draws  the  house  to  the 
ground,  while  hedges  and  walls  complete  the 
domesticity  of  the  establishment.  Perhaps  the 
main  facftor  in  producing  the  harmonious  aspedt 
of  the  English  cottage  is  the  use  of  local  mate- 
rials, which  may  be  rough  and  crude,  but  never 
cheap  and  garish. 


317 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Make  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  typical  English 
middle  class  cottage  at  the  scale  of  ^/le"  equals  i'  o." 

(2)  Copy  a  plan  of  an  English  scullery,  kitchen,  hall  and 
dining  room  as  used  in  a  cottage. 

(3)  Make  a  rough  sketch  of  the  entrance  feature  of  an 
English  cottage.  The  materials  employed  should  be 
typical. 

References 

Adams. — Modern  Cottage  Archite(5lure. 
Arnot. — Gothic  Architedlure  Applied  to  Modern  Resi- 
dences. 


318 


CHAPTER  XX.  PRACTICE  OF  ARCHI- 
TECTURE 

THE  Profession. — Archite(5lure  was  per- 
haps the  first  profession.  Originally 
all  great  building  operations  were  car- 
ried on  by  the  rulers  who  employed 
architecfts,  sculptors  and  painters.  They  ob- 
tained funds  by  conquest  and  pilfering  and 
secured  laborers  by  making  slaves  of  their  cap- 
tives. Means  for  carrying  on  gigantic  projecfls 
were  pracftically  limitless  during  certain  periods. 
Thus  came  about  the  pyramids,  temples  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  and  many  other  architecftural  monu- 
ments. In  the  Middle  Ages  the  monks  were 
the  architecfls,  and  not  only  designed  but  super- 
intended the  constru(5lion  of  the  great  cathedrals 
of  Europe.  However,  as  architedls,  they  laid 
out  only  the  general  scheme  of  the  building, 
leaving  all  the  detailing  of  parts  to  skilled  arti- 
sans, each  of  whom  did  his  particular  part  prac- 
tically as  he  saw  fit.  The  individuality  and 
skill  of  the  workman  is  readily  observed  in  such 
details  as  the  stone  caps  of  columns,  each  of 
which  in  a  building  may  be  diflFerent  from  all 
others. 

Both  monarchs  and  monks  throughout  Europe 
engaged  the  services  of  professional  architects 
and  artists  for  their  work  at  an  early  date. 
Later,  architecftural  design  and  construcftion 
were  turned  over  to  specialists  in  almost  every 
case,  the  one  in  authority  merely  suggesting 
the  scheme.  At  the  time  of  the  classic  re- 
vival of  architecfture  in  Europe,  not  only  pro- 
fessional   archite(5ls    but    also   skilled   workmen 

319 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

were  imported  from  Italy  to  carry  on  all  opera- 
tions from  the  design  of  the  building  to  the 
eredtion  and  completion  of  it.  From  this  time, 
architecflure  became  a  profession  in  the  stridl 
sense  of  the  word,  and  has  since  been  pradliced 
in  all  civilized  countries.  Public  work  has 
usually  been  done  by  archite(fls  held  in  close 
relationship  with,  and  in  high  esteem  by,  the 
government.  Many  archite(5ls  have  been  mis- 
understood and  discredited  at  the  time  of  their 
acftivity,  as  have  the  majority  of  artists,  poets 
and  writers.  The  greatness  of  the  man  shows 
in  the  durability  of  his  work.  A  case  of  peculiar 
interest  to  Americans  is  that  of  the  French 
architecft  L'Enfant,  who  was  retained  by  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  to  design  the 
Capital  city.  To  him  is  due  the  credit  of  the 
beautiful  design  of  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C, 
but  owing  to  political  conditions,  which  are  not 
always  just,  this  man  was  displaced  and  the 
great  work  entrusted  to  others,  who  eventually 
finished  it  exacftly  according  to  the  original 
design  of  L'Enfant.  The  French  architecfl  him- 
self did  not  recover  from  the  effedls  of  his  un- 
reasonable discharge,  and  for  many  years  haunted 
the  public  offices  of  the  Capitol  in  a  disconsolate 
manner,  and  finally  died  in  very  straitened 
circumstances.  Only  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date  have  the  good  offices  of  this  great  man  been 
recognized. 

Up  to  the  present  time  architedlure  as  a  pro- 
fession in  the  United  States  has  not  been  on  as 
firm  a  basis  as  other  professions,  but  of  recent 
years  the  organization  of  the  American  Institute 

320 


PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

of  Architedls  has  tended  to  produce  a  satisfadlory 
condition,  which  effedt  is  not  yet  complete.  In 
a  number  of  states  of  the  Union,  architecfts  are 
required  to  pass  an  examination  given  by  a 
State  Board  of  Examining  Archite(5ls,  and  upon 
a  satisfacftory  showing  in  the  examination  are 
granted  licenses  to  pradlice  archite(5lure.  Among 
these  states  are  Illinois,  California,  New  Jersey 
and  New  York.  Here,  then,  the  profession  is 
on  the  soundest  basis.  The  idea  in  licensing 
architecfls  is  to  protecft  individuals  and  the 
public  from  unscrupulous  and  incompetent  men 
who  are  liable  not  only  to  design  and  have 
eredled  buildings  which  are  ugly  and  grotesque, 
but  also  buildings  that  are  positively  unsafe 
and  unsanitary. 

There  are  a  great  many  archite(ftural  maga- 
zines devoted  to  the  profession.  These  maga- 
zines for  the  most  part  illustrate  and  describe 
principally  archite(5lure  of  the  present  day.  Some 
deal  only  with  the  larger  types  of  buildings, 
some  with  domestic  architecfture,  and  some  with 
both.  Among  the  important  magazines  deal- 
ing with  architecfture  proper  are  the  "Amer- 
ican Architecfl,"  "Architediural  Review,"  "The 
Architecfl,"  "Western  Archite(5l,"  "Architect 
and  Builder,"  "The  Architecftural  Record," 
"Pacific  Architect"  and  "The  Brick  Builder." 
Among  the  magazines  dealing  more  especially 
with  house  and  garden  design  are:  "House 
Beautiful,"  "American  Homes  and  Gardens," 
"House  and  Garden  "  and  "The  Craftsman." 

Owner,  Architect  and  Contractor. — ^A  certain 
established  relation  exists  between  the  "owner" 

321 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

and  the  "  architecft "  and  between  the  *'  archite(ft " 
and  the  "  contracflor"  who  is  granted  the  com- 
mission of  eredling  the  building.  The  above 
terms  are  used  in  documents  relating  to  the 
pra(5lice  of  architecflure.  In  the  first  place  an 
owner  has  a  building  in  mind  which  he  proposes 
to  erecfl  and  use  in  a  certain  manner,  and  in 
most  cases  he  has  set  aside  a  certain  amount  of 
money  to  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Often  the 
owner  has  made  a  rough  draft  or  sketch  of  the 
building  which  he  proposes  to  erecfl.  Soon  he 
finds  that  he  is  not  skilled  in  making  drawings 
that  are  sufficiently  plain  and  concise  to  be 
used  by  a  builder;  moreover,  he  is  not  sure  of  the 
cost  of  the  building  which  he  has  in  mind.  There- 
fore it  is  the  logical  and  sensible  thing  to  do  to 
present  his  ideas  and  his  sketch  to  a  pradlicing 
architedl  who  then  becomes  his  professional 
advisor  in  regard  to  all  things  pertaining  to  the 
proposed  building.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
owner  have  confidence  in  his  architecft.  From 
this  time  the  architecft  works  in  conjuncftion 
with  the  owner  and  produces  a  set  of  preliminary 
drawings  which  show  all  parts  of  the  building 
in  sketch  form.  Thereby  the  owner  may  com- 
prehend the  points  of  utility  and  beauty  of  his 
scheme,  and  the  architecft  may  comprehend  the 
true  intent  of  the  owner.  By  this  procedure 
the  owner  is  assured  of  receiving  ultimate  satis- 
facflion  in  his  building.  For  this  part  of  the  ar- 
chitecft's  work  the  fee  may  be  one  per  cent  of  the 
estimated  cost  of  the  proposed  building.  When 
these  preliminary  drawings  are  accepted  by  the 
owner,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  architecft  is 

322 


PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

authorized  to  proceed  with  the  work  and  make 
accurate  scale  drawings  of  the  building,  which  in- 
clude plans  of  the  floors,  elevations  of  all  fagades 
of  the  building,  inside  elevations  of  important 
rooms,  and  scale  details  showing  the  constru<ftion 
of  the  building  in  general  and  also  details  of  cab- 
inetwork and  finish.  These  drawings,  in  turn, 
are  approved  by  the  owner,  whereupon  the  archi- 
tecft  writes  a  specification  which  covers  the  qual- 
ity of  materials  and  labor  which  are  necessary 
for  the  erecftion  and  completion  of  the  building 
indicated  by  the  drawings.  For  this  phase  of 
the  work  the  architedl  may  receive  two  and  one- 
half  per  cent  of  the  estimated  cost  of  the  pro- 
posed building. 

The  next  step  is  to  have  made  a  number  of 
blue  print  copies  of  the  drawings  and  a  number 
of  typewritten  sets  of  specifications.  Copies 
of  these  are  sent  out  to  reliable  contractors 
each  of  whom  is  invited  to  submit  a  bid  stating 
for  what  sum  of  money  he  will  constru(fl  the 
building.  The  owner  and  archite(5l  compare  the 
bids  and  the  job  of  erecfting  the  stru(5lure  is 
usually  granted  to  the  contracflor  who  agrees 
to  do  the  work  for  the  least  sum  of  money.  By 
receiving  competitive  bids  the  owner  may  save 
a  considerable  sum.  Often  the  work  is  con- 
tracted for  in  parts,  the  heating,  plumbing,  and 
lighting  each  being  let  to  a  firm  whose  business 
it  is  to  do  but  one  of  these  things.  The  follow- 
ing form  of  agreement  between  the  owner  and 
the  contracflor  is   in  vogue: 

This  Agreement,  made  the 

in  the  year  one  thousand  nine  hundred 

323 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

and by  and  between 

(Contradlor) party    of     the     first     part,     and 

(Owner) party    of 

the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH  that  the  Contradtor,  in  consideration  of 
the  agreement  herein  made  by  the  Owner,  agrees  with  the 
said  Owner  as  follows: 

Article  I.  The  Contradlor  shall  and  will  provide  all 
the  materials  and  perform  all  the  work  for  the 

as  shown  on  the  drawings  and  described  in  the  specifica- 
tions prepared  by 

Architedl,  which  drawings  and  specifications  are  identi- 
fied by  the  signatures  of  the  parties  hereto,  and  become 
hereby  a  part  of  this  contradt. 

Article  II.  It  is  understood  and  agreed  by  the  parties 
hereto  that  the  work  included  in  this  contracft  is  to  be 
done  under  the  direction  of  the  said  Architecft,  and  that 
decision  as  to  the  true  construc- 
tion and  meaning  of  the  drawings  and  specifications  shall 
be  final.  It  is  also  understood  and  agreed  by  the  parties 
hereto  that  such  additional  drawings  and  explanations  as 
may  be  necessary  to  detail  and  illustrate  the  work  to  be 
done  are  to  be  furnished  by  said  Archite(5l,  and  they  agree 
to  conform  to  and  abide  by  the  same  so  far  as  they  may  be 
consistent  with  the  purpose  and  intent  of  the  original 
drawings  and  specifications  referred  to  in  Art.  I. 

It  is  further  understood  and  agreed  by  the  parties  hereto 
that  any  and  all  drawings  and  specifications  prepared  for 
the  purpose  of  this  contracft  by  the  said  Architecft  are 

and  remain property,  and  that  all 

charges  for  the  use  of  the  same,  and  for  the  services  of 
said  Architecft  are  to  be  paid  by  the  said  Owner. 

Article  III.  No  alterations  shall  be  made  in  the  work 
except  upon  written  order  of  the  Architedl;  the  amount 
to  be  paid  by  the  Owner  or  allowed  by  the  Contradlor 
by  virtue  of  such  alterations  to  be  stated  in  said  order. 
Should  the  Owner  and  Contradtor  not  agree  as  to  amount 
to  be  paid  or  allowed,  the  work  shall  go  on  under  the 
order  required  above,  and  in  case  of  failure  to  agree,  the 

324 


PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

determination  of  said  amount  shall  be  referred  to  arbitra- 
tion, as  provided  for  in  Art.  XII  of  this  contradl. 

Article  IV.  The  Contracftor  shall  provide  sufficient, 
safe  and  proper  facilities  at  all  times  for  the  inspecftion  of 

the  work  by  the  Architedl  or authorized 

representatives;  shall  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
receiving  written  notice  from  the  Architedt  to  that  eife(5l, 
proceed  to  remove  from  the  grounds  or  buildings  all  ma- 
terials   condemned    by whether    worked    or 

unworked,  and  to  take  down  all  portions  of  the  work  which 
the  Architedl  shall  by  like  written  notice  condemn  as  un- 
sound or  improper,  or  as  in  any  way  failing  to  conform  to 
the  drawings  and  specifications,  and  shall  make  good  all 
work  damaged  or  destroyed  thereby. 

Article  V.  Should  the  Contracftor  at  any  time  refuse 
or  negle(ft  to  supply  a  sufficiency  of  properly  skilled  work- 
men, or  of  materials  of  the  proper  quality,  or  fail  in  any 
respe(ft  to  prosecute  the  work  with  promptness  and  dili- 
gence, or  fail  in  the  performance  of  any  of  the  agreements 
herein  contained,  such  refusal,  negledl  or  failure  being 
certified  by  the  Archite(ft,  the  Owner  shall  be  at  liberty, 

after days'    written    notice    to    the    Contracftor, 

to  provide  any  such  labor  or  materials,  and  to  dedudt  the 
cost  thereof  from  any  money  then  due  or  thereafter  to 
become  due  to  the  Contracftor  under  this  contraA;  and  if 
the  Architedl  shall  certify  that  such  refusal,  neglecfl  or 
failure  is  sufficient  ground  for  such  acftion,  the  Owner  shall 
also  be  at  liberty  to  terminate  the  employment  of  the  Con- 
tracftor for  the  said  work  and  to  enter  upon  the  premises 
and  take  possession,  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the 
work  included  under  this  contracft,  of  all  materials,  tools 
and  appliances  thereon,  and  to  employ  any  other  person  or 
persons  to  finish  the  work,  and  to  provide  the  materials 
therefor;  and  in  case  of  such  discontinuance  of  the  em- 
ployment of  the  Contracftor. shall  not 

be  entitled  to  receive  any  further  payment  under  this 
contracft  until  the  said  work  shall  be  wholly  finished,  at 
which  time  if  the  unpaid  balance  of  the  amount  to  be  paid 
under  this  contracft  shall  exceed  the  expense  incurred  by 
the  Owner  in  finishing  the  work  and  any  damage  incurred 

32s 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

through  such  default,  shall  be  audited  and  certified  by  the 
Architecft,  whose  certificate  thereof  shall  be  conclusive 
upon  the  parties. 

Article  VI.  The  contra(5tor  shall  complete  the  several 
portions,  and  the  whole  of  the  work  comprehended  in  this 
agreement  by  and  at  the  time  or  times  hereinafter  stated, 
to  wit: 


Article  VII.  Should  the  ContraAor  be  delayed  in  the 
prosecution  or  completion  of  the  work  by  the  adl,  neglecft 
or  default  of  the  owner,  of  the  Architecft,  or  of  any  other 
contra(flor  employed  by  the  Owner  upon  the  work,  or  by 
any  damage  caused  by  fire,  lightning,  earthquake,  cyclone 

or  other  casualty  for  which  the  Contracftor 

not  responsible,  or  by  strikes  or  lockouts  caused  by  acfts 
of  employees,  then  the  time  herein  fixed  for  the  completion 
of  the  work  shall  be  extended  for  a  period  equivalent  to 
the  time  lost  by  reason  of  any  or  all  the  causes  aforesaid, 
which  extended  period  shall  be  determined  and  fixed  by 
the  Architecft;  but  no  such  allowance  shall  be  made  unless 
a  claim  therefor  is  presented  in  writing  to  the  Architecft 
within  forty-eight  hours  of  the  occurrence  of  such  delay. 

Article  VIII.  The  Owner  agrees  to  provide  all  labor 
and  materials  essential  to  the  conducft  of  this  work  not 
included  in  this  contracfl  in  such  manner  as  not  to  delay 
its  progress,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  so  to  do,  thereby 

causing  loss  to  the  Contracftor,  agrees  that will 

reimburse  the  Contracftor  for  such  loss;  and  the  Contracftor 

agrees  that  if shall  delay  the  progress  of  the  work 

so  as  to  cause  loss  for  which  the  Owner  shall  become 

liable,  then shall  reimburse  the  Owner  for  such 

loss.  Should  the  Owner  and  Contracftor  fail  to  agree 
as  to  the  amount  of  loss  comprehended  in  this  Article, 
the  determination  of  the  amount  shall  be  referred  to  ar- 
bitration as  provided  in  Article  XII  of  this  contracft. 

Article  IX.  It  is  hereby  mutually  agreed  between  the 
parties  hereto  that  the  sum  to  be  paid  by  the  Owner  to  the 

Contracftor  for  said  work  and  materials  shall  be 

subjecft  to  additions  and  deduc- 

326 


PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

tions  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and  that  such  sum  shall 
be  paid  by  the  Owner  to  the  Contradtor,  in  current  funds, 
and  only  upon  certificates  of  the  Architecft,  as  follows: 


The  final  payment  shall  be  made  within 

days  after  the  completion  of  the  work  included  in  this  con- 
tracft,  and  all  payments  shall  be  due  when  certificates  for 
the  same  are  issued. 

If  at  any  time  there  shall  be  evidence  of  any  lien  or 
claim  for  which,  if  established,  the  Owner  of  the  said 
premises  might  become  liable,  and  which  is  chargeable 
to  the  Contracftor,  the  Owner  shall  have  the  right  to  re- 
tain out  of  any  payment  then  due  or  thereafter  to  become 

due  an  amount  sufficient  to  completely  indemnify 

against  such  liens  or  claim.     Should  there 

prove  to  be  any  such  claim  after  all  payments  are  made, 
the  Contra(5lor  shall  refund  to  the  Owner  all  moneys  that 
the  latter  may  be  compelled  to  pay  in  discharging  any 
lien  on  said  premises  made  obligatory  in  consequence  of  the 
Contradlor's  default. 

Article  X.  It  is  further  mutually  agreed  between  the 
parties  hereto  that  no  certificate  given  or  payment  made 
under  this  contracft,  except  the  final  certificate  or  final 
payment,  shall  be  conclusive  evidence  of  the  performance 
of  this  contra(5t,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  and  that  no  pay- 
ment shall  be  construed  to  be  an  acceptance  of  defedlive 
work  or  improper  materials. 

Article  XI.  The  Owner  shall  during  the  progress  of 

the  work  maintain  insurance  on  said  work,  in 

own  name,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Contracflor,  against  loss 
or  damage  by  fire,  lightning,  earthquake,  cyclone  or  other 
casualty.  The  policies  to  cover  all  work  incorporated  in 
the  building,  and  all  materials  for  the  same  in  or  about 
the  premises,  shall  be  made  payable  to  the  parties  hereto, 
as  their  interest  may  appear. 

Article  XII.  In  case  the  Owner  and  Contracflor  fail 
to  agree  in  relation  to  matters  of  payment,  allowance  or 
loss  referred  to  in  Articles  III  or  VIII  of  this  contracfl,  or 
should  either  of  them  dissent  from  the  decision  of  the 

327 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Archite(5t  referred  to  in  Article  VII  of  this  contra(fE,  which 
dissent  shall  have  been  filed  in  writing  with  the  Architect 
within  ten  days  of  the  announcement  of  such  decision, 
then  the  matter  shall  be  referred  to  a  Board  of  Arbitra- 
tion consisting  of , 

in  behalf  of  the  Owner,  and ,  in  behalf 

of  the  Contradlor,  these  two  to  seledt  a  third.  The  de- 
cision of  any  two  of  this  Board  shall  be  final  and  binding 
on  both  parties  hereto.  In  event  of  the  death  or  inability 
to  serve  of  the  party  named  in  behalf  of  the  Owner,  then 
the  Owner  shall  sele(ft  a  person  in  his  place;  in  event  of  the 
death  or  inability  to  serve  of  the  party  named  in  behalf 
of  the  Contracftor,  then  the  Contradlor  shall  selecft  a  per- 
son in  his  place;  in  event  of  the  death  or  inability  to  serve 
of  the  third  party,  then  the  remaining  arbitrators  shall 
choose  a  person  in  his  place.  Each  party  hereto  shall  pay 
one-half  of  the  expense  of  such  reference. 

Article  XIII.  The  said  parties  for  themselves,  their 
heirs,  successors,  executors,  administrators  and  assigns, 
do  hereby  agree  to  the  full  performance  of  the  covenants 
herein  contained. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents 
have  hereunto  set  their  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year 
first  above  written. 

In  Presence  of 

During  the  process  of  the  construcftion  of  the 
building  the  architect  inspecfts  all  parts  as  they 
are  put  in  place,  and  makes  certain  that  the 
labor  and  materials  used  are  as  indicated  by  the 
drawings  and  specifications.  He  supplies  full 
size  detail  drawings  to  the  contracflor  when 
necessary.  For  this  work  of  inspecftion  and 
superintendence  the  archite<ft  receives  from  the 
owner  a  fee  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the 
cost  of  the  building  as  shown  by  the  agreement 
between  the  owner  and  the  contracftor.  Usually 
the   architecft   has   received  only   about   ninety 

328 


PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

per  cent  of  his  previous  fees,  and  from  this  time 
on  his  percentage  is  based  on  the  acftual  cost  of 
the  building  rather  than  the  proposed  cost. 
The  total  fee  of  the  architect  amounts  to  six 
per  cent  of  the  entire  cost.  Architects'  fees  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  and  for  different 
kinds  of  buildings  may  vary  from  three  per  cent 
to  twenty  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  completed 
strudlure. 

The  following  form  of  agreement  between  the 
owner  and  the  architecft  is  used  extensively: 

From ,  Architecft,  to ...  . 

,  Owner.  For  a  compensa- 
tion of the  Architedt  pro- 
poses to  furnish  preliminary  sketches,  contracft  working 
drawings  and  specifications,  detail  drawings  and  general 
superintendence  of  building  operations,  and,  also,  to  audit 

all  accounts  for  a to  be  erecfted 

for on 

Terms  of  payment  to  be  as  follows: 

One-fifth  when  the  preliminary  sketches  are  completed; 
three-tenths    when    the    drawings   and   specifications    are 

ready  for  letting  contra(5ls;  thereafter  at  the  rate  of 

per  cent  upon  each  certificate  due  to  the 

contracftor 

If  work  upon  the  building  is  postponed  or  abandoned, 
the  compensation  for  the  work  done  by  the  Architecfl  is 
to  bear  such  relation  to  the  compensation  for  the  entire 
work  as  determined  by  the  published  schedule  of  fees  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Architedls. 

In  all  transa(5lions  between  the  Owner  and  Contradlor, 
the  Architecfl  is  to  acft  as  the  Owner's  agent,  and  his  duties 
and  liabilities  in  this  connexion  are  to  be  those  of  agent 
only. 

A  representative  of  the  Architedl  will  make  visits  to  the 
building  for  the  purpose  of  general  superintendence,  of 
such  frequency  and  duration  as,  in  the  Architecft's  judg- 

329 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ment,  will  suffice,  or  may  be  necessary  to  fully  instruct 
contradlors,  pass  upon  the  merits  of  material  and  work- 
manship, and  maintain  an  effecftive  working  organization 
of  the  several  contradlors  engaged  upon  the  struAure. 

The  Architecft  will  demand  of  the  contracftors  proper 
corre<5lion  and  remedy  of  all  defecfts  discovered  in  their 
work,  and  will  assist  the  Owner  in  enforcing  the  terms  of  the 
contra<5ls;  but  the  Architect's  superintendence  shall  not 
include  liability  or  responsibility  for  any  breach  of  contracfl 
by  the  contracftors. 

The  amount  of  the  Architedl's  compensation  is  to  be 
reckoned  upon  the  total  cost  of  the  building,  including  all 
stationary  fixtures. 

Drawings  and  specifications  are  instruments  of  service, 
and  as  such  are  to  remain  the  property  of  the  Architedl. 

Architect. 

Approved  and  accepted 19.  . 

Owner. 


330 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Assume  a  simple  recftangular  house  with  a  gable  roof 
and  show  by  diagram  all  of  the  drawings  of  it  as  would  be 
made  by  an  archite(5t  in  the  preparation  of  working  draw- 
ings.   All  diagrams  may  be  on  one  sheet  of  paper. 

(2)  Make  a  preliminary  sketch  plan  of  a  small  house 
showing  an  arrangement  of  rooms  that  would  be  generally 
pra(ftical  and  economical.  The  house  may  be  your  own 
idea  of  what  a  small  suburban  house  in  your  favorite 
locality  should  be.  Draw  at  an  approximate  scale  of 
Vie"  equals  I'o". 

(3)  Make  a  list  of  heads  and  sub-heads  from  which  the 
specifications  for  a  frame  dwelling  could  be  written. 

References 

Clark. — Archite(5l,  Owner  and  Builder  Before  the  Law. 
Wait. — Engineering  and  Architedlural  Jurisprudence. 
Kidder. — Architedls'  and  Builders'  Pocket-Book. 


331 


CHAPTER  XXI.     COST  OF  DWELLINGS 

METHODS  of  Estimating.— The  cost  of 
a  building  depends,  of  course,  upon 
its  size  and  quality,  and  also  upon 
the  locality.  It  may  be  said  that 
buildings  of  masonry  cost  approximately  one- 
third  more  than  buildings  of  frame,  while  fire- 
proof buildings,  that  is,  buildings  construcfted 
entirely  of  materials  that  are  not  inflammable, 
cost  three  times  as  much  as  frame  buildings. 
Such  a  general  statement  is  approximate  only, 
since  a  masonry  building,  for  instance,  may  be 
made  to  cost  almost  any  amount. 

Methods  of  determining  the  cost  of  a  future 
building  have  been  worked  out.  The  safest 
method  is  to  have  a  pradlical  builder  or  firm 
of  contracftors  estimate  all  things  that  are  to  go 
into  the  building,  which  estimation  is  arrived 
at  by  using  building  plans  and  specifications 
made  by  an  architect:.  However,  in  a  great 
many  instances,  it  is  necessary  to  find  approxi- 
mately what  a  building  will  cost  before  complete 
plans  and  specifications  are  made.  Perhaps 
the  best  method  of  determining  the  cost  under 
such  conditions  is  to  find  the  cubic  contents  of 
the  proposed  building,  assume  a  quality  for  all 
materials  and  judge  that  each  cubic  foot  of  con- 
tents will  cost  a  certain  amount.  These  amounts 
vary  from  five  cents  to  seventy-five  cents.  The 
contents  of  the  building  may  be  found  by  multi- 
plying the  ground  area  by  the  height  of  the  build- 
ing from  the  basement  floor  to  the  middle  of  the 
attic  space.  Irregular  parts  of  a  building  and 
porches  may  be  figured  separately  to  find  the 

332 


COST  OF  DWELLINGS 

cubic  contents.  The  cost  per  cubic  foot  of 
contents  for  the  most  simple  frame  building 
or  barn  would  be  from  three  to  five  cents;  for  a 
small  cheap  residence,  seven  cents;  for  an  in- 
expensive modern  suburban  frame  house,  ten 
cents;  for  a  good  suburban  house  of  frame, 
fifteen  cents;  for  a  residence  of  masonry,  twenty- 
one  cents;  for  plain  fire-retarding  buildings, 
twenty-one  cents;  for  fire-proof  buildings,  forty- 
five  cents;  and  so  on  to  elaborately  designed 
buildings,  including  a  great  many  fixtures  which 
would  cost  perhaps  seventy-five  cents  per  cubic 
foot  of  contents.  This  cost  includes  the  building 
complete  with  heating,  plumbing  and  lighting 
appliances.  In  this  method  of  estimation,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  good  judgment  in  assuming  a 
certain  cost  for  each  cubic  foot  of  contents. 
The  method  may  be  used  accurately  only  by  one 
skilled  or  familiar  with  the  method. 

Another  simple  way  to  find  out  about  what  a 
building  will  cost  before  the  plans  are  made  is 
by  estimating  the  ground  area.  For  frame 
dwellings  having  from  one  thousand  to  two 
thousand  square  feet  of  ground  area  and  con- 
taining perhaps  eight  rooms,  the  cost  per  square 
foot  will  be  between  ^3.00  and  ^5.00.  It  is 
necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the  design 
of  the  dwelling  in  assuming  a  certain  cost  for 
each  square  foot  of  ground  area.  A  one-story 
house  will  cost  less  than  a  two-story  house  of  the 
same  ground  area  and  an  elaborate  house  will  of 
course  cost  more  than  a  plain  house  of  the  same 
shape.  Perhaps  the  maximum  cost  would  be 
$5.00  and  the  minimum  ^2.00  per  square  foot 

333 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

of   area.      Area    means    ground    and    not   floor 

area. 

Still  another  method  of  determining  cost  is  by 
assuming  that  each  room  of  the  dwelling  will 
cost  a  certain  amount.  This  amount  would  be 
from  $250  per  room  up  to  ^500  per  room.  For 
the  average  inexpensive  house  it  would  be  safe 
to  assume  that  each  room  will  cost  about  ^400. 
Thus  a  house  of  ten  rooms  including  bathroom 
and  store  room  might  cost  ^4,000. 

The  cost  of  building  the  same  residence  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  would  vary  con- 
siderably. Also  the  terms  "cheap,"  "average," 
and  "good"  do  not  mean  the  same  to  all.  Per- 
haps the  approximate  costs  here  given  pertain 
most  nearly  to  the  great  central  part  of  the 
United  States  while  the  costs  in  the  East  are 
higher  and  in  the  South  and  Northwest  are 
lower.  In  California  the  range  of  costs  is  very 
wide. 

Architecfls  use  one  or  more  of  these  schemes  of 
estimating  with  pracflically  every  proposed  build- 
ing in  order  to  save  themselves  the  tremendous 
expense  of  making  a  set  of  plans,  which,  when 
estimated  by  building  firms  would  be  found  to 
cost  far  more  and  occasionally  far  less  than  the 
stipulated  amount  for  expenditure.  The  person 
about  to  build  a  home  may  use  one  of  these 
systems  advantageously,  if  well  advised  about 
building  design  and  construdlion.  Perhaps  the 
best  method  is  the  one  whereby  the  total  cost 
of  a  dwelling  is  estimated  by  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  building. 

Example. — An  example  of  estimating  the  cost 
334 


COST  OF  DWELLINGS 

of  a  house  is  here  given.  The  house  is  about 
forty  feet  square  and  from  the  basement  floor 
to  the  middle  of  the  attic  space  is  about  twenty- 
four  feet  high.  The  contents  are  38,400  cubic 
feet.  At  eight  and  one-half  cents  per  cubic  foot, 
the  cost  of  the  building  would  be  ^3,264.  Since 
this  house  is  about  forty  feet  square,  the  ground 
area  is  1,600  square  feet.  At  ^2.00  per  square 
foot,  the  cost  of  the  house  would  be  ^3,200.  The 
house  contains  ten  rooms,  which  at  ^300  per 
room,  would  make  the  house  cost  $3,000.  This 
example  is  for  a  house  of  very  cheap  construc- 
tion, being  a  story  and  a  half  frame  dwelling 
with  concrete  basement,  finished  with  fir  and 
two  coat  plaster  work  on  the  inside,  and  rustic 
siding  and  shingles  on  the  outside.  By  acflual 
estimation  from  working  drawings,  it  is  found 
that  the  total  construcftion  would  cost  $2,600;  the 
plumbing,  $275;  hot  air  heating,  $150;  elecftric 
lighting,  $150;  making  a  total  of  $3,175. 

Controlling  Factors. — Certain  facflors  control 
to  quite  a  degree  the  cost  of  a  building.  It  is 
usually  cheaper  to  build  in  the  fall  of  the  year 
rather  than  in  the  spring,  since  not  so  much 
building  constru(ftion  is  being  carried  on  and 
consequently  there  is  not  the  same  demand  for 
labor,  which  makes  it  much  cheaper.  The  loca- 
tion for  the  building  is  of  importance  in  that  an 
isolated  site  requires  a  long  haul  of  the  building 
materials,  which  adds  to  their  cost.  A  con- 
venient location  reduces  the  cartage  bill.  The 
use  of  local  materials  rather  than  imported  mate- 
rials cheapens  a  building  in  that  the  price  of  local 
building  materials  is  usually  less.    It  is  advisable 

335 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

that  local  materials  be  used  for  several  reasons: 
first,  they  generally  look  better;  second,  they 
are  cheaper;  third,  the  produifls  of  home  indus- 
tries should  be  employed.  By  receiving  com- 
petitive bids  made  from  architecfts'  drawings  a 
saving  is  accomplished. 

Economical  Points  of  Buildings. — ^The  simple 
two-story  square  house  is  the  cheapest,  but  un- 
fortunately is  not  the  best  or  the  easiest  of 
arrangement.  A  very  good  compromise  under 
the  circumstances  is  to  make  the  house  rec- 
tangular in  shape  by  which  the  building  is  still 
economical,  also  easily  arranged,  and  pleasing 
in  form.  Simple  stru(ftures  without  projecfting 
parts  cost  less  than  buildings  of  irregular  plan. 
Each  bay  window,  porch  and  balcony  adds  con- 
siderably to  the  cost.  A  two-story  house  of  the 
same  total  floor  area  as  a  one-story  house  will 
cost  much  less.  Here,  again,  a  suitable  com- 
promise is  possible  by  building  a  one  and  a  half 
story  dwelling.  Whenever  possible,  the  flues  for 
a  house  should  be  enclosed  within  the  same  stack 
or  chimney,  thereby  reducing  the  cost.  In 
general,  the  unpretentious  compact  house  costs 
less  than  the  rambling  stru(flure.  Rather  than 
to  sacrifice  design  to  stridl  economy,  it  is  much 
better  to  plan  reasonably  and  thereby  have 
a  house  that  is  not  only  economical  but  ar- 
tistic. 

Cost  of  Masonry. — ^The  cheap  dwelling  is  not 
always  the  most  economical  in  that  up-keep  will 
soon  raise  the  initial  cost  to  an  unreasonably 
high  figure.  It  is  best  to  build  well  and  thereby 
avoid    the    expense    of    repairs    and    painting. 

336 


COST  OF  DWELLINGS 

Masonry  constru(ftIon  requires  very  little  atten- 
tion in  the  way  of  up-keep,  since  it  is  in  itself 
permanent  and  durable.  Concrete  foundations 
cost  about  ^5.00  per  cubic  yard.  Concrete  floors 
cost  about  twelve  cents  per  square  foot;  stone 
facing  or  ashlar  costs  from  fifty  cents  to  ^i.oo  per 
square  foot;  bricks  cost  from  ^7.00  to  ^50.00  per 
thousand  and  will  cost  accordingly,  when  laid 
up  with  mortar  forming  walls.  Ordinarily  brick 
walls  made  of  common  brick  with  facing  of  good 
brick  will  cost  about  fifty  cents  per  cubic  foot. 
Hollow  tile  walls  cost  about  the  same  as  common 
brick  walls.  Tile  facing  costs  about  fifty  cents 
per  square  foot  of  area.  The  facing  may  be  em- 
ployed either  on  walls  or  floors. 

Cost  of  Framing  and  Exterior  Wood  Finish. — 
Lumber  for  framing  a  wood  building  costs  per- 
haps ^14.00  per  thousand  board  feet,  a  board 
foot  being  a  block  of  wood  twelve  inches  long, 
twelve  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick.  Weather 
boarding  on  the  outside  of  a  building,  put  in 
place  and  painted  three  coats,  costs  about 
$10.00  per  one  hundred  square  feet.  Stained 
shingles  cost  approximately  the  same.  Finished 
lumber,  used  for  window  casings,  barge  boards, 
rafter  ends,  and  other  exterior  details,  costs 
about  $30.00  per  thousand  board  feet.  Mould- 
ings cost  about  one  cent  per  linear  foot  for  one 
inch  width. 

Cost  of  Interior  Finish. — Interior  materials 
are  for  the  most  part  wood  and  plaster.  Finish- 
ing woods  from  mahogany  to  yellow  pine  have  a 
wide  difference  in  cost,  the  former  being  worth 
about  $300  per  thousand  board  feet,  the  latter 

337 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

^50.00  per  thousand  board  feet.  Finished 
quarter-sawed  oak  floors  cost  about  twenty 
cents  per  square  foot.  White  maple  floors  cost 
fifteen  cents  per  square  foot,  and  hard  pine  or 
fir  floors,  edge  grained,  cost  about  ten  cents  per 
square  foot. 

The  cost  of  plaster  work  varies  with  its 
quality.  Two  coat  sand  finish  work  on  wood 
lath  costs  per  square  yard  about  twenty-five 
cents.  Three  coat  hard  finish  plaster  on  wood 
lath  costs  per  square  yard  about  thirty-five 
cents.  Plaster  mouldings  are  put  up  by  the 
linear  foot,  the  cost  depending  upon  the  elab- 
orateness of  the  design. 

Fixtures  and  Special  Details. — For  estimating 
the  cost  of  plumbing  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
each  fixture  throughout  the  building  costs  a 
certain  amount,  which  includes  all  labor  and 
materials.  These  amounts  vary  from  ^40.00  to 
^75.00  per  fixture,  depending  upon  the  size  of 
the  house  and  the  quality  of  the  fixtures  used. 
For  the  average  house  containing  six  plumbing 
fixtures,  the  cost  per  fixture  would  probably  be 
about  ^50.00,  the  total  bill  amounting  to  ^300. 
Eledlric  lighting  costs  from  ^1.50  to  ^2.00  for 
each  outlet,  including  all  wiring  complete  in  con- 
duits. Thus  for  a  house  having  thirty  outlets 
for  general  use,  it  would  cost  perhaps  ^50.00. 
The  fixtures  themselves  would  be  an  additional 
cost,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  kind  se- 
lecfted.  Gas  costs  about  ^1.25  per  outlet;  hot 
air  furnaces  cost  between  $15.00  and  $25.00  per 
register,  for  small  houses;  and  about  $25.00  or 
more  per  register  for  large  houses.     For  steam 

338 


COST  OF  DWELLINGS 

heating,  the  cost  is  from  ^40.00  to  ^45.00  per 
radiator.  Hot  water  heating  costs  from  $50.00 
to  $65.00  per  radiator. 

Chimneys  cost  perhaps  $25.00,  while  a  fire- 
place may  cost  $40.00  for  the  masonry  and 
$20.00  for  the  mantel.  Thus  a  fireplace  com- 
plete costs  approximately  $85.00.  Some  fire- 
places would  cost  less  and  some  considerably 
more.  A  common  door  costs  $2.50;  a  door 
frame  about  $1.50,  and  the  finish  or  casing  on 
both  sides,  $2.00  more.  Therefore  a  complete 
door  opening  between  two  rooms  costs  about 
$6.00,  which  with  hardware  costing  $2.00  more, 
makes  a  total  of  $8.00.  Windows  complete 
cost  about  $10.00  an  opening.  Storm  windows 
cost  about  $2.00  extra,  and  blinds  $1.00. 

Addendum. — ^As  a  further  example  of  the 
cost  of  a  dwelling,  a  two-story  frame  Colonial 
house  of  good  quality  erecfted  and  completed 
for  $5,000,  would  probably  have  cost  by  parts 
about  as  follows: 

Excavation ^100.00 

Masonry  work 700.00 

Wood  framing 600.00 

Exterior  finish 500.00 

Lathing  and  plastering 330.00 

Interior  finish  complete 800.00 

Plumbing 400.00 

Steam  heating 320.00 

Finish  hardware 300.00 

Painting  complete 250.00 

Electric  lighting 200.00 

Architecft's  fee 250.00 

Contradtor's  profit 250.00 

$5,000.00 
339 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

This  house  would  have  a  ground  area  of  1,500 
square  feet,  which  at  ^3.50  per  square  foot  would 
cause  the  house  to  cost  $5,250.  The  contents 
would  be  420,000  cubic  feet,  which  at  twelve  and 
one-half  cents  per  cubic  foot  would  cause  the 
house  to  cost  $5,250. 

Thus,  the  cost  of  any  dwelling  not  yet  erecfted 
may  be  quite  accurately  estimated  if  good  judg- 
ment is  employed. 


340 


Sketch  Problems 

(i)  Estimate  and  show  by  diagram  and  figures  the  cost 
of  a  small  house  with  which  you  are  familiar,  using  as  a 
basis  the  cubic  contents  of  the  building. 

(2)  Estimate  the  cost  of  the  same  house  by  finding  out 
the  ground  area. 

(3)  Estimate  the  cost  of  the  house  by  allowing  a  certain 
amount  of  money  for  the  cost  of  each  room. 

(4)  Verify  the  costs  found  by  the  acftual  cost  of  the 
building  under  consideration. 

References 

Bevier. — The  House.  (Article  by  Frank  Chouteau 
Brown.) 

Kidder. — Architedls'  and  Builders'  Pocket-Book. 


341 


PART    TWO— A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE 
FOR  HOME  DESIGN 

DRAFTING  ROOM  MANUAL 

Instruments. — ^The     following     equipment     is 
necessary  for  elementary  architedlural  drafting: 

Drawing  board  24"  x  lo" . 

T-square  24''. 

Archite(5l's  scale, 

45°  Triangle — 8''  sides. 

Soft  eraser. 

HB  pencils. 

Thumb  tacks. 

Yellow  pencil. 

Light  brown  drawing  paper  (heavy  weight) 
22"  X  \&'. 

Sandpaper  pad. 
The  following  additional  equipment  is  neces- 
sary for  advanced  drafting: 

Set  of  drawing  instruments. 

Drawing  board  32''  x  22''  or  Imperial  size. 

India  ink. 

Roll   of   tracing  paper  18"  long  (used  for 
preliminary  sketching). 

BB  pencils  (used  for  sketching). 

Hot  pressed  Whatman  paper,  Imperial  size. 

Paste,  sponge  and  bowl  for  mounting  paper. 
The  T-square  fits  on  the  left  edge  of  the 
drawing  board  and  is  used  in  making  horizontal 
lines.  The  triangle  slides  on  the  T-Square  and  is 
used  in  making  vertical  lines  and  diagonal  lines 
at  45°.  The  scale  is  divided  into  small  parts 
indicating  feet  and  inches  which  are  applied  to 
the  paper  on  the  board  to  represent  real  feet  and 

343 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

inches.  Thus  drawings  are  made  to  a  scale  of 
iji"  equals  i'  o",  etc.  The  paper  is  held  to  the 
drawing  board  by  the  use  of  thumb  tacks  and 
should  not  be  removed  until  the  drawing  is  com- 
plete. 

Kinds  of  Drawings. — ^The  chief  drawings  used 
to  represent  buildings  or  parts  of  buildings  are 
called  plans,  elevations,  secftions  and  details. 
A  plan  is  a  view  looking  down  and  shows  floor 
arrangement.  An  elevation  is  a  view  looking 
toward  and  shows  wall  treatment.  A  se(5lion  is  a 
view  obtained  by  passing  an  imaginary  plane 
through  any  given  part,  thereby  separating  it 
and  representing  the  part  exposed  by  a  drawing. 
The  plane  cutting  through  a  part  at  which  a 
se(5lion  drawing  is  made  may  be  at  any  angle  but 
should  be  defined.  A  detail  is  a  drawing  of  a 
particular  part  at  large  scale.  For  sketches  still 
another  kind  of  drawing  is  employed,  called  per- 
spe(5live.  A  perspe(5live  view  is  a  view  showing 
how  an  objecft  adlually  looks,  as  is  a  photograph. 
However,  a  photograph  is  a  mechanical  likeness 
of  a  real  objecfl  while  a  perspecTtive  is  a  pidlure 
made  by  hand  but  not  sketched  from  a  real  ob- 
jedl.  It  is  made  according  to  certain  perspec5live 
principles  from  plans  and  elevations.  For  the 
method,  treatises  on  perspedlive  may  be  con- 
sulted. 

Conventional  Indications. — Plans  are  made 
according  to  conventional  indications  generally 
accepted.  Thereby  drawings  may  be  made  by 
one  draftsman  and  conveniently  read  by  any 
other  because  the  symbols  used  are  known  to 
him.   The  symbols  are  realistic  for  the  most  part 

344 


CO 

-J  ^ 

4.  < 


"A 

o 


ji 

t 

X 

2 

= 

lit 

- 

Li 


Plate  so 
Indications  Used  on  Plans 


34S 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

SO  that  a  layman  can  tell  what  they  mean  to  a 
great  extent.  Thus  a  door  is  indicated  by  a  line 
which  looks  like  a  door  ajar.  It  is  necessary  to 
learn  these  conventional  indications  which  may 
be  accomplished  by  copying  Plate  50.  Eleva- 
tions are  made  as  literally  as  possible,  that  is, 
each  part  is  acftually  drawn.  In  large  scale 
drawings  many  more  details  or  small  parts  may 
be  shown  than  in  small  scale  drawings. 

Architectural  Terms. — Many  terms  are  so  fa- 
miliar as  to  need  no  mention  such  as  door,  win- 
dow, roof,  etc.  Other  terms  are  so  unfamiliar 
as  need  never  to  be  mentioned  such  as  finial, 
intaglia,  ichnography,  etc.  However,  there  are 
a  number  of  terms  used  by  architecfts  and  build- 
ers which  should  be  known  to  a  student  of  do- 
mestic architecfture.  A  list  of  these  comprises 
the  glossary  of  architectural  terms  on  page  359. 

Dimensions. 

Suggested  Dimensions  of  Rooms 

Minimum  Maximum 

Kitchens 8'  x  8'  19'  x  19' 

Pass  pantries 5'  x  5'  7'  x  12' 

Dining  rooms Ii'  x  14'  17'  x  25' 

Living  rooms 13'  x  17'  21'  x  40' 

Libraries,  music  rooms,  museums.  .  .Alcoves  15'  x  35' 

Reception  rooms 10'  x  10'  13'  x  20' 

Bedrooms 7'xii'  I7'x25' 

Bathrooms 5'  x  6'  9'  x  15' 

Laundry 9'  x  9'  17'  x  17' 

Nursery 8'  x  8'  13'  x  17' 

Billiard  rooms 13'  x  17'  15'  x  20' 

Halls — with  double  stairway 6'  wide  15'  wide 

Passages — with  single  stairway 3'  wide  5'  wide 

Front  porches 10'  wide  20'  wide 

Back  porches 4'  wide  14'  wide 

346 


DRAFTING  ROOM  MANUAL 

Usual  Dimensions  of  Built-in  Parts 

1.  Fireplaces — 3'  o"  to  4.'  6'',  width  of  open- 

ing. 

2.  Kitchen  shelves — 12''  wide  to  4"  wide. 

3.  Bookcase  shelves — 10''  wide  to  6"  wide. 

4.  Working  counters — 34''  high,  22''  wide. 

5.  Tables — same  height  as  counters  when  used 

in  kitchen. 

6.  Window  seats — 16''  to  24''  high,  20''  wide. 

7.  Doors  and  windows — y'  high,  usually. 

8.  Width  of  windows — 2'  to  4'. 

9.  Casement,  or  French  windows — 2'  each,  in 

pairs. 

10.  Large  window  for  special   purpose, — land- 

scape window  of  plate  glass — 6'  to  8'  wide. 

11.  Width  of  inside  doors — 2'  6".     Closet  doors 

are  sometimes  narrower.  Living  and  din- 
ing room  doors  are  sometimes  wider,  3' 
to  4'. 

12.  Width  of  outside  doors — 3'  o"  to  3'  6". 

13 .  Width  of  cupboard  doors — 16".    Sliding  cup- 

board doors  are  often  wider. 

14.  Steps  consist  of  treads  and  risers.     In  plan 

the  treads  (T)  show  and  in  elevation  the 
risers  (R)  show. 


Riser 

Tread 

Outside  steps 

4" 

14" — easy 

T  +  R=i8" 

5" 

13" — good 

6" 

12" — average 

7" 

11" — steep 

Inside  steps 

5"    ' 

12" — easy 

T  +  R=i7" 

6" 

11" — good 

7" 

10" — average 

8" 

9" — steep 

347 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Approximate  Dimensions  of  Furniture 

Dining  chairs — 18''  high,  19"  deep,  20"  wide. 

Davenports — 8'  long — 30"  wide. 

Dining  tables — 2'  d"  high,  3'  6"  to  4'  o"  wide; 

also  4',  5',  G  diameter. 
Reading  tables — 2'  6"  high. 
Beds — single,  3'  to  4'  wide,  G  %"  long. 
Three-quarter,  4'  to  4'  ^'  wide. 
Double,  5'  wide. 
Chiffoniers — 3'  wide,  i'  G'  deep,  4'  6"  high. 
Dressers — 3'  6"  wide,  i'  6''  deep,  2'  6"  high. 
Pianos — Upright — 5'  long,  2'  4"  deep. 

Baby  grands — 6'  long,  4'  6''  deep. 

Parlor  grands — 6'  6''  long,  5'  deep. 

Concert  grands — 9'  long,  5'  deep. 
Billiard  tables — 4'  to  5'  wide,  8'  to  10'  long. 
Range— 2'  6"  x  4'  o". 

Dimensions  of  Plumbing  Fixtures 

Bath  tubs — 30''  wide,  4'  to  6'  long. 

Lavatories — id"  x  20"  or  14''  to  \G'  diameter. 

Water-closets — width  16",  depth,  24". 

Foot  baths — 22''  x  20''. 

Seat  baths — 32''  x  27''. 

Shower  baths — 4'  o"  x  4'  o" ,  floor  space. 

Kitchen  sinks — 16"  x  24''  to  20"  x  36''. 

Slop  sinks — 16"  x  16". 

Pantry  sinks — 14''  x  20''. 

Laundry  tubs — \6"  x  24''  each. 

Range  boilers — \z"  to  20''  diameter. 

Equipment  for  Rooms. — Note:   All  parts  and 
articles  are  not  essential. 

348 


DRAFTING  ROOM  MANUAL 

I.  Kitchen. 

a.  Range. 

b.  Flue.    Locate  chimney  first  and  plan  to 

have  the  range  dire(5tly  by  the  chim- 
ney. 

c.  Gas  or  elecftric  range. 

d.  Hot  water  tank  near  to  range. 

e.  Wood  lift,  if  used,  or  wood  box. 

f.  Sink  and   drain  boards. — Drain  boards 

should  be  as  long  as  possible  and  on 
both  sides  of  the  sink.  If  only  one,  it 
should  be  on  the  left. 

g.  Cupboards,  bearing  in  mind  what  goes 

in  each, 
h.  Stool  and  chair, 
i.  Service  wagon, 
j.  Cooler, 
k.  Ice-box. 

1.  Kitchen  closet,  for  brooms,  etc. 
m.  Working  counter  and  bins,  dresser  or 

cabinet, 
n.  Outside  door. 
o.  Cellar  door,  close  to  kitchen, 
p.  Windows  on  two  sides. 
q.  Register,  if  heated  by  hot  air. 

Radiator,   if  heated   by   steam   or   hot 

water. 
Note:  One  of  these  is  needed  if  gas  or 

elecftric  range  is  used. 
r.  Central    light    from    ceiling    and    wall 

brackets, 
s.  Power  outlets    (at  least  3)   for  elecftric 

machines. 
t.  Ironing  board  and  cabinet. 
349 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

2.  Dining  room. 

a.  Buffet  or  sideboard. 

b.  China  cupboard. 

c.  Service   table   at   pass   pantry   door  or 

kitchen  door. 

d.  Dining  room  suite. 

e.  As  many  windows  as  possible, — a  con- 

servatory. 

f.  Lighting  and  heating  apparatus. 

3.  Pantries. 

I.  Pass  pantry. 

II.  Storage  pantry. 

a.  Counters. 

b.  Cupboards. 

c.  Sink. 

d.  Lighting  apparatus. 

4.  Den. 

a.  Fireplace. 

b.  Bookcases. 

c.  Davenport. 

d.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

5.  Hall. 

a.  Windows  and  doors. 

b.  Stairway. 

c.  Vestibule  preceding  hall. 

d.  Cloak   closet   with   shelves,   hooks    and 

lavatory. 

e.  Seat  or  stand. 

f.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

6.  Living  room. 

a.  Fireplace. 

b.  Piano,  space  on  inside  wall. 

c.  Window  seats. 

3SO 


DRAFTING  ROOM  MANUAL 

d.  Other  furniture. 

e.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

7.  Reception  room. 

a.  Formal  equipment. 

b.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

8.  Libraries. 

a.  Bookcases. 

b.  Table. 

c.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

9.  Bedrooms. 

a.  Bed. 

b.  Dressing  table. 

c.  Chiffonier,  or  dresser. 

d.  Night  stand. 

e.  Wardrobe  or  closet. 

f.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus, 

10.  Dressing  room. 

a.  Hanging  space. 

b.  Wardrobe. 

c.  Dressing  table. 

d.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

11.  Bathroom. 

a.  Plumbing  fixtures. 

b.  Heating  and  lighting  apparatus. 

c.  Medicine  case. 

d.  Towel  case. 

e.  Linen  closet  in  proximity. 


351 


PROBLEMS  IN  DESIGN 

Problem  I:  Conventional  Plan  Details. — Copy 
Plate  50  at  scale  of  l4"  equals  i'  o''.  Use  sheet 
of  paper  22''  x  16"  and  allow  a  border  i"  wide  on 
all  sides.  Use  HB  pencil  for  all  lines  and  letter- 
ing.   Sign  name  in  lower  right  hand  corner. 

Problem  II:  A  Kitchen  Wing  to  House  oj 
Colonial  Type. — ^Assume  a  symmetrical  Colonial 
house  48'  X  30',  having  on  the  first  floor  a  parlor, 
a  music  room,  a  living  room,  a  hall  10'  wide 
through  the  centre  and  a  dining  room  on  the 
northeast  corner.  The  house  faces  south  and 
is  a  frame  strucfture  having  walls  six  inches 
thick.  The  family  to  occupy  the  house  will 
maintain  one  domestic. 

Design  a  kitchen  wing  on  the  north  side  of  the 
main  recftangular  unit  reached  from  both  the 
front  hall  and  the  dining  room.  The  wing  or 
addition  to  the  house  is  to  contain  a  back  hall, 
a  stairway  up  and  down,  a  porch,  a  pass  pantry 
and  a  kitchen  fully  equipped.  The  addition 
may  have  a  breakfast  room,  a  closet  and  a 
dining  room  porch. 

Drawing  is  to  be  presented  as  a  sketch  plan 
at  scale  of  yi"  equals  \'  o" .  All  lines  are  to  be 
firm  pencil  lines  and  walls  are  to  be  colored  with 
yellow  pencil.  See  Plates  22,  23,  24  and  25. 
Size  of  paper  is  to  be  regulation  size. 

Problem  III:  A  Formal  Cottage. — ^Assume  a 
lot  100'  X  100'  in  a  small  New  England  town. 
The  lot  has  two  fronts,  north  and  east,  on 
equally  important  streets  and  is  pracflically  level. 
The  house  is  to  accommodate  two  people. 

Design  a  formal  cottage  containing  a  living 

352 


PROBLEMS  IN  DESIGN 

room,  a  dining  room,  a  kitchen,  two  bedrooms 
and  all  accessories  including  halls,  bathroom, 
closets,  linen  closet,  chimneys  and  porches. 
Only  these  rooms  and  no  others  are  to  be  pro- 
vided. The  house  may  be  one  and  one-half 
stories  high. 

Draw  plan  or  plans.  If  two,  at  the  scale  of 
]4"  equals  i'  o".  Locate  in  the  rooms  all  equip- 
ment. Built-in  fixtures  are  to  be  indicated  by 
light  solid  lines  and  movable  fixtures  and  furni- 
ture by  dotted  lines.    See  Plate  i6. 

Problem  IV:  An  Informal  Cottage. — ^Assume 
a  small  farm  In  the  middle  west  which  is  the 
home  of  a  retired  professor.  The  building  site 
for  a  new  house  is  on  a  slight  elevation  away 
from  the  main  road  and  is  in  the  centre  of  a 
grove  of  white  oaks.  The  family  to  occupy  the 
house  or  cottage  consists  of  four  adult  members. 
No  hired  help  will  be  employed  In  the  beginning 
but  may  be  needed  at  a  later  time. 

Design  an  informal  cottage  of  eight  rooms  and 
accessories  preferably  all  on  one  floor  but  with 
a  stairway  to  the  attic  where  may  be  sleeping 
porches  and  store  rooms.  Draw  plan  or  plans 
at  scale  of  }i"  equals  i'  o''.    See  Plate  21. 

Problem  V:  A  Typical  Bungalow  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. — ^Assume  a  lot  50'  x  100'  facing  east  in 
the  centre  of  a  block.  The  village  Is  situated 
In  a  valley  and  contains  for  the  most  part  cement 
plaster  houses.  The  building  is  to  accommodate 
three  people  at  most,  who  live  modestly  on  a 
limited  income.  The  building  Is  to  be  salable 
and  consequently  should  not  be  extreme. 

Design  a  bungalow  conveniently  and  econom- 

353 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

ically  arranged.  The  ground  area  may  not  be 
more  than  1,200  square  feet.  The  distance  from 
the  basement  floor  to  the  centre  of  the  attic 
space  may  not  be  more  than  22  feet.  The  cubic 
contents,  therefore,  may  be  only  26,400  cubic 
feet.  At  9^  cents  per  cubic  foot  the  build- 
ing could  cost  about  $2,500.  The  interior  and 
exterior  finish  must  be  very  simple. 

Make  drawings  of  plan  at  scale  of  y^"  equals 
\'  o"  and  of  elevation  at  scale  of  ^2"  equals  i'  o". 
See  Plates  17  and  19. 

Problem  VI:  A  House  for  the  Average  Family. — 
Assume  a  typical  narrow  lot  50'  x  100'  facing 
north  in  a  good  suburban  districfl  of  a  middle 
eastern  small  city.  On  this  lot  is  to  be  erecfled  a 
house  to  accommodate  a  family  of  two  adults 
and  three  children  and  also  at  times  one  do- 
mestic. 

Design  an  economical  but  artistic  frame  struc- 
ture with  two  main  floor  areas  having  a  living 
room,  dining  room,  small  study,  kitchen,  halls, 
porches,  bath,  four  bedrooms,  sleeping  porch 
and  all  necessary  accessories.  It  is  suggested 
that  the  main  entrance  be  at  one  side  rather 
than  in  the  front  of  the  building.  Draw  first 
floor  and  second  floor  plans  at  the  scale  of  yi" 
equals  I'o''. 

Problem  VII:  A  Prairie  Farmhouse. — ^Assume 
a  farm  of  640  acres  in  Illinois  operated  by  the 
owner.  Besides  the  owner  and  his  wife  there 
are  four  growing  children,  two  hired  women  and 
two  hired  men  comprising  the  household.  The 
chosen  site  for  the  strudlure  is  a  slightly  ele- 
vated tracft  of  land  400  feet  square  on  the  public 

354 


PROBLEMS  IN  DESIGN 

highway  facing  south.  The  tradl  is  barren  of 
trees. 

Design  a  farmhouse  of  the  old  New  England 
type  providing  living  room,  dining  room,  kitchen, 
store  pantry,  wash  room,  fuel  room,  milk  room, 
oiBce,  sewing  room,  two  bathrooms,  seven  bed- 
rooms, halls  and  closets,  and  also  a  sitting  room 
for  hired  help.  Although  the  house  is  to  have 
many  rooms  they  are  to  be  small  to  reduce  cost. 
All  treatments  are  to  be  very  simple  especially 
exterior  porches,  cornices,  etc.  The  basement 
may  be  used  for  some  rooms. 

Draw  first  floor,  second  floor  and  basement 
plans  at  scale  of  %"  equals  i'  o".  Also  make  a 
very  small  or  thumb-nail  sketch  of  exterior. 
Estimate  cost  of  this  strucflure  allowing  for  ex- 
penditure to  make  the  house  ready  for  occu- 
pancy the  sum  of  9  cents  per  cubic  foot  of  con- 
tents. 

Problem  VIII:  A  Plastered  House  of  English 
Type. — ^Assume  a  large  building  site  in  a  small 
Oregon  town  where  the  climate  is  moderate  but 
very  rainy.  A  family  of  five  desire  to  erecfl  a 
permanent,  bright  and  convenient  dwelling  at 
low  cost.  Consequently  a  frame  house  with 
cement  plaster  finish  is  selec5led  as  the  type. 
On  account  of  the  desire  for  brightness  no  wide 
projedling  cornices  are  wanted  and  for  the  same 
reason  many  casement  windows  are  to  be  em- 
ployed. 

Design  a  pradlical  house  of  unsymmetrical 
proportions  containing  a  living  room,  dining 
room,  den,  kitchen,  pass  pantry,  bathroom, 
four   bedrooms    and    all    necessary    accessories. 

355 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Terraces  are  preferred  to  covered  porches  and 
a  sleeping  porch  is  desired  in  the  second  story. 
If  possible,  a  play  room  in  the  attic  is  to  be  in- 
corporated since  this  style  of  house  would  have 
a  steep  roof  and  consequently  a  roomy  attic 
space. 

Draw  first  and  second  floor  plans  at  ^1%"  scale 
and  two  elevations  at  ^4"  scale.  Estimate  cost 
of  strudlure  allowing  only  8  cents  for  each  cubic 
foot  of  contents.  The  height  of  this  building 
from  basement  floor  to  middle  of  attic  space 
would  be  about  32'  o''. 

Problem  IX:  A  Colonial  House. — ^Assume  a 
building  site  in  a  suburban  distri(5l  near  a  large 
city.  The  site  is  very  pleasing,  having  a  gradual 
slope  back  from  the  street  in  front  and  being 
level  with  the  two  side  streets  that  bound  it  on 
the  east  and  west.  An  alley  is  in  the  rear.  The 
dimensions  of  the  lot  are  200'  x  200'.  It  is  the 
intention  of  the  owner  to  erect  a  permanent 
brick  dwelling  upon  the  site  to  be  used  by  a 
household  consisting  of  two  adults,  five  children 
and  two  domestics. 

Design  a  Colonial  house  to  cost  not  more  than 
^10,000.  The  building  is  to  be  especially  dignified 
and  at  the  same  time  homelike. 

Draw  plans  of  first  and  second  floors  at  scale 
of  Vs''  equals  i'  o'',  and  a  very  small  sketch 
elevation.  See  Plates  12,  13  and  14,  and  also 
Plates  10,  II  and  16. 

Problem  X :  A  Garden  for  an  Informal  House. — 
Assume  that  the  house  shown  on  Plate  15  is  to 
be  located  on  a  lot  200'  x  200'  with  the  street 
on  the  north  side  of  the  lot  but  the  outlook 

356 


PROBLEMS  IN  DESIGN 

toward  the  south.  The  ground  slopes  in  all 
direcflions  very  gradually. 

Design  the  garden  showing  drives,  walks, 
garden  stru(ftures  and  plantings.  Make  a  sketch 
plan  at  scale  of  i"  equals  20'.  See  Plate  47  for 
indications. 

Problem  XI:  The  Main  Wall  of  a  Bungalow 
Living  Room. — ^Assume  an  informal  cottage  or 
bungalow  living  room  to  have  a  north  wall  9' 
high  and  16'  long.  This  wall  has  in  it  one  or 
more  windows,  a  fireplace  and  other  features. 

Design  the  main  wall  of  a  bungalow  living 
room,  giving  it  architecflural  treatment  and 
balance.  Make  an  elevation  at  scale  i"  equals 
i'  o''.  Show  all  woodwork  especially.  See  Plates 
26,  27,  28  and  29. 

Problem  XII:  Kitchen  Details. — Draw  eleva- 
tion and  secftion  through  counter  and  bins  of 
fixtures  indicated  on  north  wall  of  kitchen  shown 
on  Plate  22.  Make  drawings  at  scale  i"  equals 
o".    See  Plates  34  and  35. 

Problem  XIII:  Own  House. — ^Assume  a  build- 
ing site  and  design  own  house  of  any  style  to 
cost  not  more  than  ^3,500.  Make  plans  at  scale 
of  >^'' equals  I'o". 


357 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 

1.  Abacus:   The    upper    member   of   the   capital   of   a 

column. 

2.  Alcove:  A  large  recess  in  a  room  usually  separated 

from  it  by  an  arch  or  beam. 

3.  Apron:  A  piece  of  wood  finish  below  the  stool  of  the 

window. 

4.  Arcade:  A  series  of  arches.    See  Plate  38. 

5.  Arch:  The  form  of  an  opening  or  treatment  having 

a  curved  top.    See  Plate  38. 

6.  Architrave:  The  lower  part  of  an  entablature.     A 

door  or  window  casing. 

7.  Area:  An  open  space  below  grade  in  front  of  a  base- 

ment window. 

8.  Ashlar:  A  facing  of  squared  stones.    See  Plate  39. 

9.  Astragal:  A  semicircular  moulding.     A  wood  strip 

covering  the  crack  between  two  hinged  doors  or 
windows.    See  Plate  36. 

10.  Axis   (plural,    Axes).      A   straight   line,    imaginary, 

through  the  centre. 

11.  Backfill:  Material  thrown  into  an  excavation  against 

a  foundation  wall.    See  Plate  42. 

12.  Backing:  A  rough  surface  behind  a  finish  material. 

13.  Balcony:  A  proje<5ting  floor  and  balustrade. 

14.  Baluster:  One  of  the  spindles  or  columns  forming  a 

balustrade.     See  Plate  39. 

15.  Balustrade:  A  series  of  balusters   between  a   base 

and  a  rail  supported  at  intervals  by  pedestals  or 
columns.    See  Plate  39. 

16.  Band:  A  flat  moulding  or  facia.    See  Plate  36. 

17.  Barge  Board. — One  of  a  pair  of  boards  under  the 

verge  of  a  gable  usually  supported  by  brackets. 
See  Plate  43. 

18.  Base:  A  lower  part. 

19.  Batten:  A  small  strip  of  wood. 

20.  Batter:  An  incline  in  a  wall  away  from  the  front. 

21.  Bay:  A  division  in  architedlural  treatment. 

22.  Bead:  A  circular  moulding.    See  Plate  36. 

23.  Beam:  A  horizontal  support.     Beams  are  often  non- 

supporting  or  false. 

3S9 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECURE 

24.  Bed  Mould:  A  moulding  fitted  under  a  wide  projecfl- 

ing  part. 

25.  Belt:  A  horizontal  band  or  set  of  mouldings. 

26.  Bevel:  The  surface  obtained  by  cutting  off  a  sharp 

corner. 

27.  Bond:   A    binding   or   pattern    showing    method    of 

binding.    See  Plate  40. 

28.  Bracket:   An   ornamental   proj celling    member   sup- 

porting a  cornice  or  a  beam.    See  Plate  37. 

29.  Bridging:  S'tiflFeners  between  joists  or  studs. 

30.  Butt  Joint:  A  joint  formed  by  placing  the  end  of  one 

member  against  another  member. 

31.  Buttress:  A  mass  of  masonry  projedling  beyond  a 

wall  to  take  thrust  or  pressure.     See  Plate  38. 

32.  Cap  or  Capital:  The  upper  part  or  member  of  a 

column,  pier  or  pilaster. 

33.  Casement:  A  hinged  window. 

34.  Chute:  A  small  open  shaft,  as  a  linen  chute.     See 

Plate  12. 

35.  Clerestory:  The  upper  part  of  a  high  story  having  a 

set  of  windows.    See  Plate  38. 

36.  Colonnade:  A  series  of  columns. 

37.  Column:  A  post  or  round  pillar.    See  Plate  38. 

38.  Conductor:  A  metal  pipe  for  condu(5ting  water  from 

the  roof  or  eaves. 

39.  Conduit:  A  pipe  to  carry  an  elecftric  wire.    Any  pipe 

or  tunnel  for  conducfting. 

40.  Coping:  A  continuous  capping  for  a  wall. 

41.  Corbel:  A  projecftion  in  a  masonry  wall  made  by 

setting  courses  beyond  the  lower  ones. 

42.  Cornice:   The   crowning   member   of   a    wall.      See 

Plate  43. 

43.  Counter  Shelf:  The  narrow  shelf  in  front  of  a  cup- 

board at  the  counter  line. 

44.  Cove  or  Coving:  A  continuous  concave  surface.    See 

Plate  35. 

45.  Crown:  An  uppermost  moulding. 

46.  Curb:  A  very  small,  low  wall. 

47.  Curb  Roof:  See  Plate  38. 

48.  Deck:  The  flat  part  of  a  roof.    See  Plate  38. 

49.  Dentil:  One  of  a  series  of  ornamental  cogs  or  teeth. 

360 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 

50.  Dormer:  A  small  projedllon  from  a  roof  containing  a 

window.    See  Plate  38. 

51.  Double-action  Door:  A  door  swinging  both  ways. 

See  Plate  50. 

52.  Dowel:  A  wood  or  metal  pin  used  to  hold  two  parts 

together. 

53.  Downspout:  See  conducftor. 

54.  Drip:  A  groove  cut  on  the  under  side  of  a  projedting 

part  to  cause  rain  water  to  drip  rather  than  flow 
back  to  the  wall. 

55.  Eaves:  That  part  of  a   roof  which  overhangs  the 

wall. 

56.  Engaged  Column:  A  part  of  a  column  attached  to  a 

wall  or  pier. 

57.  Entasis:  The  curving  in  the  shaft  of  a  column. 

58.  Escutcheon:  A  shield,  ground  or  plate;  also  the  hard- 

ware on  a  door  to  accommodate  the  knob  and 
keyhole. 

59.  Facade:  An  important  face  of  a  building. 

60.  Facing:  A  finish  material  to  cover. 

61.  Finish:  Any  material  used  for  finishing. 

62.  Flange:  A  projecfling  rib  or  rim. 

63.  Flashing:  Sheet  metal  used  over  joints  in  roofs  and 

walls  to  keep  out  water.    See  Plate  43. 

64.  Flue :  A  compartment  of  a  chimney  to  carry  off  smoke 

or  foul  air. 

65.  Flush   Surface:   A   continuous   surface   without   an 

angle. 

66.  Flute:  A  concave  channel. 

67.  Footings:  The  wide  courses  of  masonry  at  the  base 

of  a  foundation  wall.    See  Plate  42. 

68.  Framing:   The   rough    timberwork    of   a   strudlure. 

See  Plate  42. 

69.  Fresco:  A  color  decoration  on  plaster. 

70.  Frieze:  An  upper  horizontal  band  of  wall. 

71.  Furring:  Wood  strips  on  the  inside  of  a  masonry  wall 

to  support  lath  and  plaster.    See  Plate  43. 

72.  Gable:  The  upper  part  of  a  wall  terminating  the 

roof.    See  Plate  38. 

73.  Gambrel:  A  roof  with  two  pitches.    See  Plate  38. 

74.  Gargoyle:  A  grotesque  figure  used  for  a  waterspout. 

361 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

75.  Girder:  A  construdlive  member  to  support  joists. 

76.  Grade:  The  ground  line.    See  Plate  43. 

'j'j.  Grade  Door:  A  stair  door  at  the  ground  line.     See 
Plate  12. 

78.  Grille:  A  metal  screen. 

79.  Groove:  A  square  sunk  channel  to  receive  a  tongue, 

as  tongue  and  groove  flooring. 

80.  Grounds:  Small  wood  blocks  flush  with  the  plaster 

surface  on  which  to  nail  finish  or  trim.    An  estate 
or  plot  of  ground. 

81.  Grout:  Very  thin  mortar. 

82.  Gutter:  A  channel  for  carrying  off  rain  water.     See 

Plate  43. 

83.  Head:  The  upper  jamb  on  a  door  or  window. 

84.  Header:  The  short  face  of  a  brick.     A  timber  into 

which  other  timbers  are  butted  and  spiked. 

85.  Head-room:  Space  beneath  a  stair  where  any  person 

may  comfortably  walk. 

86.  Hearth:  The  floor  in  front  of  a  fireplace.    See  Plate 

.5°- 

87.  Hip-roof:  A  roof  sloping  in  all  four  diredlions.     See 

Plate  38. 

88.  Hood:  A  covering  over  an  entrance.    A  metal  canopy 

above  a  range  to  condudt  foul  air  to  a  vent. 

89.  Hopper-bin:  A  tilting  bin  shaped  as  a  hopper. 

90.  Inglenook:  An  alcove  containing  usually  a  fireplace, 

seats  and  bookcases.     See  Plate  27. 

91.  Jamb:  The  side  and  sometimes  the  top  of  an  interior 

opening. 

92.  Joist:  One  of  the  timbers  to  which  the  flooring  is 

nailed.    See  Plate  42. 

93.  Keystone:  The  central  stone  of  an  arch. 

94.  Landing:  A  platform  in  a  flight  of  steps.     See  Plate 

50. 

95.  Lath:    Strips    of   wood    used    as    a    background    for 

plaster. 

96.  Lattice:  Any  work  made  by  crossing  strips  of  wood 

or  metal. 

97.  Lean-to:  A  shed  whose  rafters  lean  against  another 

building  or  other  part  of  the  same  building.     Sec 
Plate  38. 

362 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 

98.  Lintel:    A  horizontal   strucftural  member  over   an 

opening. 

99.  Loggia:  A  sheltered  gallery  or  portico.    See  Plate  12. 
100.  Louvre:  A  slat  in  a  ventilating  window.    The  win- 
dow itself  containing  horizontal  slats  to  exclude 
rain  but  admit  air. 

loi.  Mansard  roof:  See  Plate  38. 

102.  Mantel:  The  shelf  part  of  a  fireplace. 

103.  Meeting-rail:  The  double  rail  between  the  upper 

and  lower  sash  of  a  double  hung  window. 

104.  Member:  A  unit  employed  in  design  or  construc- 

tion. 

105.  Mezzanine  Floor:  A  balcony  floor.    See  Plate  38. 

106.  Mitre:  A  joint  formed  by  cutting  members  at  an 

angle  and  butting  together. 

107.  Modillion:  One  of  a  series  of  ornamental  blocks  as 

found  in  the  Corinthian  entablature. 

108.  Mortise:  A  pocket  cut  in  a  wood  member  to  receive 

a  tenon  forming  a  mortise  and  tenon  joint. 

109.  Mould  or  moulding:  See  Plates  36  and  37. 
no.  Mullion:  A  post  between  windows. 

111.  Muntin:  A  division  between  lights  of  a  window. 

112.  Newel-Post:   The   large   post   terminating   a    stair 

rail.    See  Plate  37. 

113.  Niche:  A  small  recess  in  a  wall.     See  Plate  50. 

114.  Nosing:  A  projecfting  round  edge,  commonly  used 

on  the  tread  of  a  stairs. 

115.  Order:  See  Plate  36. 

116.  Pane:  A  window  light. 

117.  Panel:  A  framed  part. 

118.  Panelling:    Framed   work   including   panels,    stiles 

and  rails. 

119.  Parapet:  A  low  wall.    See  Plate  38. 

120.  Parquetry:  Wood  flooring  of  small  matched  pieces. 

121.  Pass  Cupboard:  A  cupboard  between  and  opening 

into  two  rooms. 

122.  Pass  Pantry:  A  butler's  pantry.    See  Plate  23. 

123.  Pedestal:  A  support  consisting  of  a  base,  die  and 

cap  for  a  statue  or  a  column.    See  Plate  39. 

124.  Pediment:  A  gable  as  used  in  classic  archite(5lure. 

See  Plate  38. 

363 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

125,  Pergola:  An  arbor  originated  by  the  Italians.     See 
Plate  45. 

26.  Pier:  A  solid,  square  post.    See  Plate  39. 

27.  Pilaster:  A  part  of  a  square  column  attached  to  a 

wall.     See  Plate  39. 

28.  PUlar:  A  post  or  column. 

29.  Plate:   A   strucftural   member   used   as   a    bearing. 

See  Plate  43. 

30.  Plinth:  A  square  block  at  the  base. 

31.  Plumb:  Perpendicular. 

32.  Porte  Cochere:  A  carriage  or  automobile  porch. 

33.  Portico:  A  classic  porch. 

34.  Post:  A  perpendicular  supporting  member. 

35.  Pull:  A  handle  to  a  drawer. 

136.  Quoins:  Squared  stones  or  masses  of  brick  used  at 
the  corners  of  masonry  walls. 

37.  Rabbet:  See  Rebate. 

38.  Rafters:  Timbers  used  to  frame  a  roof. 

39.  Rail:  A  horizontal  member  as  chair  rail,  hand  rail, 

etc.    Also  a  horizontal  member  in  panelling. 

40.  Ramp:   A   concave  or  sloping  hand  rail  or  balus- 

trade. 

41.  Rebate:  A  groove  on  the  edge  of  a  wood  member. 

42.  Retaining  Wall:  A  wall  to  hold  back  an  earth  em- 

bankment, 

43.  Return:   A   moulding  or   member  that  turns   and 

terminates  against  a  surface. 

44.  Reveal:  The  outside  jamb  surface  of  an  opening. 

45.  Ribbon:  See  Plate  42. 

46.  Ridge :  The  top  edge  or  divide  of  a  roof. 

47.  Riser:   The   vertical   member  or   distance   in   the 

step  of  a  stairs. 

48.  Rubble:  See  Plate  39. 

49.  Sash:  The  frame  that  holds  the  glass  of  a  window. 

50.  Sheathing:  The  underboarding  on  the  rough  frame. 

51.  ShedRoof:  See  Lean-to.    See  Plate  38. 

52.  Shoe  Mould:  The  small  mould  against  the  base- 

board at  the  floor. 

53.  Siding:    Weatherboarding    or    wood    facing    on    a 

stru(fture. 

54.  Sill:  A  main  horizontal  member  at  the  base  used  as 

364 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 

a  bearing  for  the  superstrudture.     Also  a  window 
sin. 

155.  Slide  Cupboard:  See  Pass  Cupboard. 

156.  Sleeper:  A  timber  imbedded  in  earth  or  concrete 

to  receive  floor  joists  or  flooring. 

157.  Soffit:  The  under  surface  of  a  projedling  part. 

158.  Spindle:  One  of  the  small  balusters  of  a  stair  rail. 

159.  Splay:  An  oblique  jamb  surface. 

160.  Spring  Line:  The  line  from  which  an  arch  springs. 

161.  Stack:  A  chimney, 

162.  Stile:  A  vertical  member  in  panelling.    See  Plate  46. 

163.  Stoop:  A  seat  before  the  door,    A  small  entrance. 

164.  Stool:  An  inside  window  sill.     See  Apron. 

165.  Stop:  A  small  strip  to  hold  a  door  or  window  sash 

in  place. 

166.  Stretcher:  The  long  face  of  a  brick.    See  Header. 

167.  Studding:  The  uprights  used  in  framing. 

168.  Tenon:  See  Mortise. 

169.  Terrace:  A  raised  level  space  without  a   roof  or 

covering  having  sloping  sides.    See  Plate  12. 

170.  Threshold:  The  sill  piece  of  a  doorway. 

171.  Throat:  The  opening  between  a  fireplace  and  the 

flue,  proper.     See  Plate  30. 

172.  Tie:  A  strudlural  member  to  bind  together. 

173.  Tongue:  See  Groove. 

174.  Transom  Bar:  The  rail  between  a  door  and  a  tran- 

som. 

175.  Tread:  The  horizontal  member  or  distance  in  the 

step  of  a  stairs. 

176.  Trellis:  A  frame  of  latticework  for  supporting  vines. 

177.  Trim:  The  woodwork  of  a  room. 

178.  Trimmer:  A  timber  at  the  side  of  a  framed  opening 

butting  into  a  header.    See  Header. 

179.  Turret:  A  small  tower.    See  Plate  6. 

180.  Upright:  Any  member  standing  on  end. 

181.  Valley:  An  internal  angle  formed  by  the  intersedlion 

of  roof  planes. 

182.  Vent:  A  ventilating  dudl  or  a  ventilator. 

183.  Verge  Board:  See  Barge  Board. 

184.  Vista:  A  distant  view  down  an  avenue  through 

trees. 

36s 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

185.  Wainscoting  or  Wainscot:   Facing  for   the   lower 

part  of  an  interior  wall. 

186.  Water  Table:  A  projecfting  mould  near  the  base  on 

the  outside  of  a  building  to  turn  the  rain  water 
outward. 

187.  Well:  An  opening  in  the  floor  for  a  stairway  or 

similar  feature. 

188.  Wing:  An  annex  or  a  proje(5ting  part  of  a  building. 


366 


INDEX 


Abacus,  359 
Acanthus,  122 
Acetylene  gas,  230,  255 
Aesthetic  sense,  i,  40,  126 
Agreement    between    owner    and 
architect,  329 

contractor,  323 
Air,  240,  249 

compressors,  232 
Alcoves,  88 
Alleys,  45 
American  Institute  of  Architects, 

320 
Anchoring     frame     construction, 

183. 
Angle  irons,  160 
Appliances,  229 

English  cottage,  313 
Approaches,  281,  299 
Aprons,  92 
Arbors,  84,  286 
Arcades,  56,  129 
Arches,  129 

stone,  138 
Architect,  function  of  the,  321 
Architects,  American  Institute  of, 

320 
Architectural  drafting,  343 

furniture,  87 

magazines,  321 
Architecture,  art  of,  i,  20,  277 

landscape,  277 

practice  of,  3 19  • 

profession  of,  3 19 
Architrave,  92,  120,  359 
Arc  lamps,  262 
Arrangement  of  flowers,  223 

furniture,  218 

miscellaneous  articles,  222 

pictures,  220 

rooms,  58 
Arts,  allied,  126 
Asbestos,  161,  242 
Ashlar,  136 
Ash  pit,  96 

Assyrian  architecture,  8 
Astragal,  359 
Attic  spac^  85 


Attic,  insulation  of,  161 
Automatic  gas  heaters,  233 
Axes,  53,  87 

B 

Babylonian  architecture,  8 
Backfilling,  180 
Balance,  55,  91 
Baluster,  359 
Balustrades,  58,  359 
Barge  board,  359 
Baseboards,  91 
Basements,  85 

floors  of,  180 
Bases,  120 
Bathrooms,  decoration  of,  216 

design  of,  66 

equipment  for,  351 

size  of,  346 
Bath  tubs,  66,  274 

size  of,  348 
Batter  boards,  176 
Bays,  56 

Beams,  ceiling,  92,  98,  359 
Beaver  board,  211 
Bed  mould,  360 

Bedrooms,      architectural      furni- 
ture for,  99 

decoration  of,  213 

design  of,  64 

equipment  for,  351 

size  of,  346 
Beds,  built-in,  99 

size  of,  348 
Belt  courses.    (See  Mouldings) 
Bench  mark,  177 
Beveled  edges,  103,  124 
Bids,  competitive,  323 
Billiard  rooms,  62,  85 
Billiard  tables,  size  of,  348 

woodwork  of,  99 
Bins,  112 

Blinds,  cost  of,  339 
Blue  prints,  323 
Board  foot,  337 
Boards,  bread,  no 

drain,  74,  114 

work,  113 
Bog  gardens,  290 


367 


INDEX 

Boilers,  range,  268 

size  of  range,  348 

steam,  245 
Bolts,  160 
Bookcases,  98 

for  cook-books,  115 
Bower-Barf  finish  for  iron,  167 
Box  cornices,  188 

gutters,  188 
Braces,  185 
Brass,  167 
Bread  boards,  no 
Brick  joints,  142 

patterns,  142 

veneer,  174 
Brickwork,  142 
Bricks,  138,  169 
Bricks,  common,  139 

enameled,  140 

face,  139 

fire,  139 

glazed,  139 

interior  face,  170 

paving,  139 
Bronze,  168 

Buffets.    {See  Sideboards) 
Building  materials,  common,  133 

finish,  163 
Building  papers,  160,  186 
Built-in  furniture,  87 

English  cottage,  314 
Bungalows,  36,  69,  75 
Butler's  pantry,  74.    (See  Pantries, 

Pass) 
Butt  joint,  360 
Buttresses,  129 
Butts,  166 

C 

Cabinets.    {See  Cupboards) 

ironing  board,  115 

medicine,  66,  I02 

special,  99 
Cabinet  work,  94 
Calcimining,  208 
Candle  power,  254 
Candles,  253 
Canvas,  20(5,  209 
Capitals,  120 
Caps,  120 
Carpentry,  174 


Cases.      (See  Cabmets   and   Cup- 
boards) 
Casings,  92 
Cast  iron.    (See  Iron) 
Castles,  medijeval,  12 
Catch  basins,  270 
Ceiling  heights,  88 
Cellars.    (See  Basements) 
Cements,  144,  164 
Center  lines.    (See  Axes) 
Cesspools,  272 
Chair  rails,  91 
Chairs,  225 

size  of  dining,  348 
Channels,  121 

Character  and  moldings,  117 
Character  of  colonial  houses,  126 

exteriors,  54,  190 

gardens,  277 

miscellaneous  styles,  128 
Charges  of  architects,  322 
Chiffoniers,  built-in,  100 

size  of,  348 
Chimneys,  181,  185 

cost  of,  339 
China  cupboards,  74,  102,  106 
Cinders  for  walks,  281 
Circuit  breakers,  261 
Circulation,  58,  219,  298 
Cisterns,  269 
City  lots,  44 
Classical  mouldings,  117 
Clay  for  bricks,  139 

for  bearing,  177 
Clerestory,  360 
Closets,  64 
Clothes  chutes,  66 
Cloth  for  wall  decoration,  209,  211 
Coal,  255 
Coals,  312 
Colonial  architecture,  20,  127 

character  of,  126 
Colonial  architecture  in  New  Eng- 
land, 34 

in  the  middle  colonies,  28 

in  the  south,  3 1 
Colonnades,  56 
Color,  203 

of  bricks,  140 

of  light,  253 
Columns,  120 


368 


Comparison  of  the  orders  of  archi- 
tecture, 119 
Composite  order,  123 
Composition,  55,  218 

of  mouldings,  119 
Compression  tanks,  231 
Concrete,  125 

materials  for,  163  . 

reinforced,  145 
Concrete  blocks,  146 
Concrete  walls,  178 
Conductors.    {See  Downspouts) 
Conduits,  259 
Conservatories,  70 
Construction,  house,  174 
Consumption  of  air,  249 

of  water,  267 
Contour  maps,  296 
Contractor,  321 
Contracts.    {See  Agreements) 
Contrast  of  parts,  56 
Corinthian  order,  122 
Cornices,  54,  120 

brick,  141 

exterior,  188 

interior,  92 
Cost,  332 

methods  of  estimating,  332 
Cost  of  chimneys,  339 

doors,  339 

electric  lighting,  338 

fireplaces,  339 

framing,  337 

gas,  338 

hot  air  heating,  338 

hot  water  heating,  339 

interior  finish,  337 

masonry,  336 

painting,  338 

plaster,  331 

plumbing,  338 

steam  heating,  338 

windows,  339 
Cottages,  Dutch  Colonial,  30 

English,  310 

New  England,  26 
Counters,  kitchen,  104,  no 

size  of,  347 
Cranes,  236 
Cromlechs,  2 
Crown,  360 


INDEX 

Cubic  contents,  332 
Cupboards,  china,  74,  102,  106 

construction  of,  197 

cool,  115 

dry,  106 

pantry,  106 

pass,  72,  74,  103 

service,  72,  74,  103 

spice,  106 

ventilated,  115,  237 
Curb  roof    {See  Plate  38) 
Curtains,  226 
Cut-outs,  261 

D 

Dampness,  174 
Damp-proofing,  180 
Datum,  297 

Davenports,  size  of,  348 
Daylight,  251 
Deadening  quilts,  160 
Decoration,  interior,  204 

period,  206 
Dens,  63,  85 

equipment  of,  350 
Dentils,  121 
Design,  garden,  295 

house,  51 

interior,  87 

room,  87 
Detail  drawing,  definition  of,  344 
Devices,  miscellaneous,  236 
Diaper  work,  142 
Die,  120 

Diffusion  of  light,  253 
Dimensions.     {See  Sizes) 
Dimensions  of  built-in  parts,  347 

furniture,  348 

plumbing  fixtures,  348 

rooms,  346 
Dining  and  cooking  apartments,  68 
Dining  rooms,  architectural  furni- 
ture for,  102 

design  of,  64,  68,  80 

equipment  for,  350 

size  of,  346 
Dining  tables,  size  of,  348 
Documents,  321 
Dolm.ens,  2 
Domus,  II 
Door  frames,  187 


369 


INDEX 

Doors,  88,  196 

cost  of,  339 

cupboard,  108 

English  cottage,  316 

size  of,  347 
Doric  order,  121 
Dormers,  kinds  of,  129 
Dovetail  joining,  196 
Downspouts,  160,  269 
Drafting  room  manual,  343 
Drafts,  chimney,  96 
Drainage,  269 
Drain  boards,  74,  114 
Drain  pipes,  269 
Drain  tiles,  143,  269 
Drawers,  197 
Drawings,  architectural,  344 

topographical,  296 

working,  323 
Dressers,  built-in,  100 

size  of,  348 
Dressing  rooms,  architectural  fur- 
niture for,  100 

design  of,  66 

equipment  for,  351 
Dressing  tables,  100 
Drips,  187,  361 
Drives,  281,  299 
Dumb  waiters,  235 
Durability,  85 
Dynamos,  229 


Eaves.    (See  Cornices) 
Eccentric    mouldings    and 

ment,  124 
Egyptian  dwellings,  2 
Electric  lamps,  262 

lighting,  258 

cost  of,  338 
Electric  machines,  229 

plants,  229 

wiring,  258 
Electricity,  257 
Electroplating  iron,  167 
Elevations,  grade,  295,  296 

in  drawing,  344 
Elevators,  dumb,  235 
Enamel,  168,  2CX3 
Enameled  brick,  140 


Enameled  iron,  273 

woodwork,  207 
Endogens,  146 
Engines,  229 
English  architecture,  17 

character  of,  128 
English  cottages,  310 

gardens,  277 
Entablatures,  120 
Entasis,  120 
Entrance  porches,  82 
Equipment  of  rooms,  349 
Erection  of  buildings,  174 
Escutcheons,  166,  361 
Estimating  costs,  332 
Excavation,  177 
Exogens,  146 
Expanded  metal  lath,  193 
Expansion  joints,  145 
Expansion  tanks,  247 
Exterior  design,  58 

finish,  187 

trim,  187 


Fabrics,  226 

Farmhouses,  appliances  for,  229 

kitchens  for,  76 

landscape  gardening  for,  279 

sites  for,  48 
Farm  sites,  48,  279 
Fees,  architect's,  322,  329 
Fences,  289 
Finish,  exterior,  187 

interior,  192 
Finish  materials,  163 
Fire  bricks,  139 
Fireplaces,  94,  241 

cost  of,  339 

size  of,  347 
Fireproof  buildings,  cost  of,  332 
Fire  protection,  41 
Fire  stops,  193 
Fire  Underwriters,  260 
Fitments,     314.       {See    Architec- 
tural Furniture) 
Fitting,  gas,  255 

Five  orders   of  architecture,    118 
Flashing,  169,  187 
Floor  coverings,  226 

drains,  66 


370 


Flooring,  cost  of  wood,  338 

dimensions  of  wood,  167 

laying  of,  198 

quarter  sawed,  166 

under,  185 
Floors,  basement,  180 

concrete,  145 

finish,  167 

tile,  170 

treatment  of,  208 

wood,  167 
Flour  bins,  112 
Flow  of  gas,  255 

water,  267 
Flower  boxes,  84 
Flowers,  arrangement  of,  223 

planting  of,  306 
Flowers  in  gardens,  293 
Flues,  96,    181.     (See  Chimneys) 
Foot  baths,  275 

size  of,  348 
Footings,  178 
Forces,  hostile,  i 
Formal  houses,  37 
Forms  for  concrete,  145 
Foundations,  177 
Fountains,  287 
Frame  construction,  175 
Framing,  175,  182 

cost  of,  337 
Freezing  of  water  in   pipes,   268 
Friezes,  120 
Frontage  of  lots,  42 
Fronts,  garden  and  street,  31,  51 
Fuel  rooms,  85 
Fuel  windows,  237 
Furnaces,  241 
Furnishing,  house,  218 
Furniture,  architectural,  87,  94 

for  bedrooms,  99 

for  dining  rooms,  102 

for  kitchens,  104 

for  living  rooms,  94 
Furniture,  arrangement  of,  218 

selection  of,  224 
Furring,  174,  361 
Fuses,  261 


Gable,  361 
Galvanized  iron,  160 


INDEX 

Gambrel,  361 

Games,  283 

Garages,  280 

Garbage,  disposal  of,  234 

Garden  construction,  295 

design,  295,  297 

houses,  284 
Gardening,  277 
Garden  structures,  283 
Gardens  and  grounds,  277 
Gardens,  bog,  290 

formal,  277,  299 

informal,  277 

Japanese,  291 

rock,  291 

water,  290 
Gargoyles,  126,  287 
Gas,  acetylene,  230,  255 

heating,  255 

illuminating,  255 

sewer,  270 
Gas  fitting,  255 

cost  of,  338 
Gas  heaters,  232 
Gas  pipes,  255 

sizes  of,  256 
Gates,  84,  289 
Geometry  of  plan,  55,  87 
Georgian     architecture,     20,     23. 

(See  Colonial  Architecture) 
Girder,  362 
Glass,    170,    200.      (See   Glazing) 

leaded,  171 

plate,  170 

prism,  172 

ornamental,  210 

sheet,  171 

translucent,  172 

wire,  172 
Glass  on  hardware,  168 
Glazed  bricks,  139 
Glazing,  200 
Globes,  253 
Glossary   of   architectural    terms, 

359 
Gothic  architecture,  12,  18,  21,  124 
Grade,  362 
Grade  door,  362 
Grading,  177 

of  gardens,  301 
Grain  of  wood,  147 


371 


INDEX 

Granites,  133 

Gravel,  145,  281 

Greek  architecture,  10,  21 

Groove,  tongue  and,  196 

Grounds,  194.    {See  Gardens) 

Grout,  362 

Grouting,  183 

Gutters,  160,  188,  269 

H 

Hair  plaster,  192 
Halls,  58 

equipment  for,  350 

rear,  78 

size  of,  346 
Hand  rails,  58 
Hangings,  226 
Hard  plaster,  208 
Hardware,  160 

finish,  166 

putting  on  of,  198 
Hardwoods,  147,  150 
Hat  shelf,  99 
Headers,  brick,  142 
Hearths,  96,  181 
Heat,  240 
Heaters,  85 

Heating  and  ventilation,  240,  248 
Heights,  ceiling,  88.     {See  Dimen- 
sions) 
Hinges,  160 
Hip  roof,  129,  362 
Hoists.     {See  Cranes) 
Hollow  tiles,  144,  174 
Hoods  for  doors,  84 

ranges,  114 
Hopper  bins,  112 
Hot  air  furnaces,  241 
Hot  water  heating,  247 

cost  of,  339 
Hot  water  supply,  232 
H-plans,  55 
Humidity,  248 

I 

I-beams,  160 

Illumination,  253.     {See  Lighting) 

Incandescent  lamps,  262 

Incinerators,  234 

Indications,  conventional  plan,  344 


Individuality,  52 
Informal  houses,  37 
Inglenooks,  98,  314 
Inspection,  work  of,  328 
Instantaneous  gas  heaters,  232 
Instruments,  drafting,  343 
Insulating  materials,  161 
Insulation  of  attic  rooms,  161 
Interior  decorations,  203 

design,  87 

finish,  192 

woodwork,  91,  195 
Ionic  order,  122 
Iron,  160 

enameled,  273 
Iron  finishes,  167 

J 
Jambs,  height  of  head,  90 

plaster,  316 
Japan  finish  for  hardware,  167 
Japanese  influence,  36 
Joining,  196 
Joints,  brick,  142 

expansion,  145 

stone,  138 

wood,  196 
Joists,  182 

K 

Kitchen  design,  70 
Kitchen  for  a  farmhouse,  76 

the  large  suburban  house,  74 

the      very     small     suburban 
house,  72 
Kitchens,    architectural    furniture 
for,  104 

decoration  of,  214 

design  of,  70 

equipment  for,  349 

plumbing  for,  275 

size  of,  70,  346 
Knobs,  door,  166 
Knots,  wood,  148 


Lake  dwellings,  2 
Lamps,  253 

electric,  262 


372 


Landscape  architecture,  277,  283 

gardening,  277 
Lathing   192,  194 
Lathe,  184 

Lathe  and  plaster,  192 
Lattices,  84 
Laundries,  78,  346 
Laundry  machines,  236 

tubs,  275 
Lavatories,  102,  274,  348 
Lawns,  292 
Lead  pipe,  267 
Lean-to,  362 
L'Enfant,  320 
Libraries,  design  of,  62 

equipment  for,  351 

size  of,  346 
License,  architect's,  321 
Lifts,  23s 

wood,  115 
Light,  251.    {See  Daylight) 

artificial,  2i;2 

diffusion  of,  253 
Lighting,  251 

electric,  258 

gas,  255 
Lighting  fixtures,  263 
Lime,  163 
Lime  mortar,  164 
Limestones,  133 
Line,  117 

Line,  building,  176 
Line,  center.    (See  Axes) 
Linen  closets,  68,  100 
Linoleum,  226 
Linseed  oil,  168 
Lintels,  I,  363 
Living  apartments,  62 
Living  rooms,  architectural  furni- 
ture for,  94 

arrangement  of  furniture  for, 
219 

decoration  of,  212 

design  of,  62 
Living  rooms,  equipment  for,  350 

size  of,  346 
Lockers,  198 
Locks,  166 
Log  cabins,  23,  28 
Loggia,  363 
Lots.    {See  Sites) 


INDEX 

Louvre,  363 
L-shapes,  87 
Lumber,  preparation  of,  148.    {See 

Wood) 
Lumens,  263 

M 

Mansard  roof,  129 

Maps,  contour,  296 

Marble  plumbing  fixtures,  273 

Marble  slabs  for  kitchens,  112 

Marbles,  134 

Masonry,  174,  177,  181,  336 

Mass,  117 

Masses,  56 

Materials,  building,  133,  163 

decorative,  206 

English  cottage,  316 

garden,  279 

planting,  302 
Materials  for  drives  and  walks,  281 

plumbing  fixtures,  273 
Medicine  cabinets,  66,  102 
Meeting-rail,  363 
Metal  lathe,  expanded,  193 
Metal,  ornamental,  211 
Metal  paint,  168 
Metals.    {See  Iron,  Brass,  Bronze, 

etc.) 
Middle  class  cottages,  English,  3 1 1 
Milk  boxes,  237 

cupboards,  115 

rooms,  78 
Mineral  wool,  161 
Mirrors  in  china  cupboards,   102 

wardrobes,  loo 
Mission  style,  35,  128 
Mitre,  363 
Modillions,  122 
Monoliths,  2 
Monticello,  32 
Mortar,  163 

Mortise  and  tenon  joints,  196 
Mouldings,  classical,  117 

eccentric,  124 

Gothic,  124 

nailing  of,  197 

sanitary,  130 
Moulds.    {See  Mouldings) 
Mount  Vernon,  34 
Mullions,  316 


373 


INDEX 

Museums,  62 

Music  rooms,  62,  346 

Mutules,  121 

N 

Nails,  160 
Newel-post,  363 
Nurseries,  68,  346 


0 

Offices,  62 

Orders  of  architecture,  118 

use  of,  123 
Oriental  rugs,  226 
Ornament,  58,  124 
Ornamental  glass,  210 
Owner,  321 


Paint,  168 

Painted  woodwork,  207 

Painting,  199 

cost  of,  338 
Palaces  of  Rome,  10 
Paneling,  92 
Panels,  92 
Pantries,  equipment  for,  350 

pass,  72,  74,  346 

storage,  74,  76,  78 
Paper,   building,    160,    186.      (See 

Wallpaper) 
Parlors,  62 
Parquetry,  363 

Passages,  size  of,  346.    (See  Halls) 
Pass  cupboards,  72,  74,  103 

pantries,  72,  74,  103 
Pastimes,  children's,  283 
Pavements,  41 
Paving  bricks,  139 
Pedestals,  120 
Pediment,  363 
Pergolas,  84,  286 
Persian  architecture,  8 
Perspective,  344 
Piano  cases,  98 
Pianos,  size  of,  348 

space  for,  62 
Picture  moulds,  92 
Pictures,  220 
Pigments,  168,  195 


Pilaster,  364 

Piles,  177 

Pipes,  gas,   255.     (See  Conduits) 

sewer,  270 

water,  267 
Plans,  definition  of,  344 

geometry  of,  55 

types  of,  SI 
Planting,  302 
Plaster,  192 

cost  of,  338 

materials  for;  163 
Plaster  of  Paris,  208 
Plastering,  192 

back,  193 
Plate  glass,  170 
Plate  rails,  104 
Plates,  183 
Play  rooms,  85 
Plenum,  243 
Plinth,  364 
Plot  of  a  survey,  296 
Plumbing,  267,  338 
Police  protection,  41 
Problems  in  design,  352 
Pointing,  138,  142 
Porcelain,  273 
Porches,  decoration  of,  216 

design  of,  82 

dining,  80 

kitchen,  82 

living,  84 

size  of,  356 

sleeping,  64 

two-story,  84  , 

width  of,  84 
Portico,  10,  129 
Portland  cement,  144,  164 
Posts,  cast  iron    160.     {See  Col- 
umns) 
Power,  229 

Prehistoric  structures,  2 
Pressure  of  gas,  255 
Pressure  of  water,  267 
Primitive  dwellings,  3 
Prism  glass,  172 
Profile  map,  296 
Proportion,  55,  87 
Public  utilities,  41 
Pumps,  288 
Pyramids,  2,  20 


374 


Quilts,  deadening,  i6o 
Quoins,  138 

R 

Radiation,  245 

Radiators,  245 

Rafters,  184 

Rails,  92 

Raked  out  joints,  138,  142,  289 

Range,  size  of,  348 

Rebate,  364 

Reception  rooms,  design  of,  60 

equipment  for,  357 

size  of,  346 
Red  lead,  168 
Reflectors,  heat,  98 

light,  253 
Refrigerators,  234 
Registers,  242 
Reinforced  concrete,  145 
Renaissance  architecture,  18 
Restfulness,  212 
Reveal,  364 
Ribbons,  184 
Risers,  347,  364 
Rock  gardens,  291 
Roman  architecture,  10 
Romanesque  architecture,  12 
Roofs,  construction  of,  184 

coverings  for,  187 

kinds  of,  129 
Rubble,  136 
Rugs,  226 
Rustic  siding,  186 


Safes,  239 
Sand,  145,  164,  195 
Sandstones,  134 
Sash,  window,  88 
Sawing  of  wood,  147 
Scale,  58 
Scales,  343 
Screens,  196,  197 
Screws,  160 
Scrolls,  122 
Sculleries,  312 
Sculpture,  124 
Seasoning  of  timber,  150 


INDEX 

Seat  baths,  size  of,  348 
Seats,  fireplace,  98 

garden,  288 

window,  98,  347 
Sections,  definition  of,  344 
Septic  tanks,  272 
Servants,  rooms  for,  82,  85 
Service  cupboards,  72,  74,  103 

pantries,  72,  74 

tables,  104 
Sewage,  270 
Sewer  gas,  270 
Sewers,  270 
Sewing  rooms,  64 
Shades,  lamp,  253 

window,  252 
Shafts,  120 
Shakes,  148 
Shale,  136 
Sheathing,  185 
Sheathing  paper,  160,  186 
Sheet  glass,  171 

metal,  160 
Shellac,  168 
Shelter,  i,  23 
Shelters,  284 
Shelves,  108,  347 
Shingles,  186,  187 
Shiplap,  185 
Shoe  mould,  91 
Shops,  67,  85 
Showers,  275,  348 
Shrinkage,  150,  196 
Shrubs,  292,  304 
Sideboards,  102 
Side  lights,  88 
Siding,  lap,  186 
Sill,  364 
Sills,  182 

inside  window,  92 
outside  window,  187 
Sinks,  kitchen,  72,  76,  1 14,  275 
pantry,  275 
slop,  275 
size  of,  348 
Sites,  building,  40 
Sizes.     {See  Dimensions) 
of  bricks,  142 
of  gas  pipes,  256 
of  water  pipes,  267 
Slates,  13s 


375 


INDEX 

Sleeping  aparttaients,  64 

porches,  64 
Sleeper,  365 
Slope  of  ground,  45 
Smoke  stacks,  181,  185 
Smoking  rooms,  62 
Soapstone    136,  273 
Soffit,  365 

Softwoods,  147,  155 
Soil  pipes,  270 
Soils,  43,  301 
Spanish  architecture,  34 
Specifications,  176 
Spouts.     (See  Downspouts) 
Spring  line,  365 
Stacks.    {See  Chimneys) 
Staff,  208 
Staining,  199 
Stains,  168 

Staircase,  Colonial,  128 
Stairs,  347 
Stairways,  58 

width  of,  346 
Staking  out  the  building,  176 
Statues,  287 
Steam  heating,  243 

cost  of,  338 
Steel,  160 

Stepping  stones,  282 
Steps,  inside,  8  \ 

garden,  282 

size  of,  347 
Stiles,  92 

step,  289 

turn,  289 
Stone  facing,  136 

joints,  138 
Stones,  building,  133 
Stonework,  137 
Stools,  kitchen,  104 

window,  92 
Stoops,  84 

Storage  pantries,  74,  76,  78 
Store  rooms,  68 
Stoves,  240.    {See  Ranges) 
Streets,  41 
Stretcher,  365 
Stucco,  193 
Studding,  183,  36s 
Studs,  183 
Styles  of  architecture,  7,  36 


Stylobate,  121 

Suburban  houses,  37,  62,  72 

lots,  44 
Summer  houses,  284 
Sun  dials,  287 
Sunshine,  251 

in  the  kitchen,  70,  251 
Superposition  of  the  orders  of  ar- 
chitecture, 123 
Surveys,  295 
Switches,  260 

Symbols.     {See  Conventional  In- 
dications) 

used  on  maps,  297 


Tables,    height    of   kitchen     104, 

347. 

size  of  dining,  348 

size  of  living,  348 
Tanks,  hot  water,  232,  268 

house  or  storage,  268 
Tea  houses,  284 

rooms,  62 
Telephones,  house,  235 
Temperature,  249 
Terms,  architectural,  346 

glossary  of  architectural,  359 
Terraces,  298 
Terra-cotta,  143,  170 
Terra-cotta  tile,  144,  174 
Texture  of  bricks,  140 
Tiles,  143 

drain,  143,  269 

face,  169 

floor,  170 

ornamental,  210 

roof,  143 

sewer,  144 

terra-cotta  hollow,  144,  174 
Tiles  for  plumbing  fixtures,  273 
Timber.      {See   Wood    and    Lum- 
ber) 
Tin,  160 
Toilet  cases,  102 
Toilet  rooms.    (S^^ Lavatories  and 

Bathrooms) 
Tongue  and  groove  joints,  196 
Topographical  drawings,  296 
Topography,  278 


376 


Towel  closets,  66,  loo,  102 
Towns,  origin  of,  16 

southern  Colonial,  31 
T-plans,  55 
Transoms,  88 
Transportation,  41 
Traps,  270 

grease,  271 
Tread,  365 

Treads,  width  of,  347 
Trees,  garden,  292 

growth  of,  146 

planting  and  care  of,  304 

value  of,  43 
Trellises,  84 
Triangles,  343 
Triglyphs,  121 
Trim,  exterior,  187 

interior,  91,  195 
Trimmer,  365 
Trunk  rooms,  68 
T-squares,  343 
Tuffs,  136 
Tumuli,  2 
Turnstiles,  289 
Tuscan  order,  120 

U 

Under  flooring,  185 
Uniform  contract,  323 
Units  in  design,  55,  56 
Urns,  288 

Utilities,    house.      (See    Devices) 
outdoor,  280 


Vacuum  cleaners,  233 
Valley,  365 
Varnish,  168 
Varnishing,  199 
Vases,  flower,  223 

garden,  288 
Vaults,  239 
Vegetable  rooms,  85 
Veneer,  brick,  174,  186 
Ventilation,  240,  248 
Vent  pipes.     (See  Ventilation) 
Vents,  in  plumbing,  270 


INDEX 

Verandas.    (See  Porches) 

Verge  board.     (See  Barge  Board) 

Vermin  proof  bins,  112 

walls,  193 
Villas  of  Rome,  1 1 
Vines,  304 

Vistas,  279,  290,  307 
Vitreous  ware,  273 

W 

Wainscot,  92,  98 
Wainscoting,  92,  98 
Walks,  281,  299 
Wallpaper,  209 
Walls,  garden,  288 

masonry,  181 
Wardrobes,  64  99 
Warping,  150,  196 
Wash  basins.     (See  Lavatories) 
Wash-up  rooms,  78 
Waste  pipes,  270 
Water  closets,  274 

size  of,  348 
Water  consumption,  267 

gardens,  290 

in  the  garden,  290 

pipes,  267 
Waterproofing  of  foundation  walls, 

180 
Water  supply,  231,  267 
Water-tables,  187 
Water  wheels,  229 
Wells,  288 
White  lead,  168 
Wind  breaks,  279 
Windmills,  229 
Window  frames,  187 
Windows,  88,  197,  251 

cost  of,  339 

English  cottage,  316 

size  of,  347 
Window  seats,  98 
Wire,  electric,  258 
Wire  glass,  172 
Wiring,  electric,  258 
Wood,  146 

cost  of,  337 
Wood,  growth  of,  246 

preparation  of,  148 

sawing  of,  147 


377 


INDEX 

Woods,  seasoning  of,  150  soft,  147,  155 

Wood  joints,  196  Working  drawings,  323 

treatments,  206 
Woods,  finish,  165  j 

hard,  147,  150 

imported,  158  Zinc  for  bin  linings,  112 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


378 


'T*HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


Interior  Decoration  for  the  Small  Home 

By  amy  L.  ROLFE,  M.A. 

Illustrated,  i2mo 

Instead  of  describing  in  great  detail  the  very  expensive 
furniture  and  rugs  which  can  be  purchased  only  by  the 
few,  the  author  dwells  rather  upon  the  general  principles 
which  apply  in  all  cases  and  treats  specifically  of  such 
furnishings  as  are  suitable  in  the  homes  of  people  of  mod- 
erate means.  Among  the  topics  included  are  walls  and 
ceilings,  windows,  floors,  rugs  and  carpets,  furniture,  fire- 
places, lamps,  and  lighting  fixtures.  A  chapter  on  cabinet 
woods  is  a  special  feature.  The  material  is  organized  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  useful  both  as  a  text-book  and 
as  a  practical  guide  in  the  furnishing  of  a  home.  The  book 
is  fully  illustrated  and  shows  in  an  unusually  practical 
manner  how  the  rules  of  art  may  be  applied  in  the  decora- 
tion and  furnishing  of  all  homes. 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

Publishers         64-66  Fifth  Avenue         New  York 


Physics  of  the  Household 


By  CARLETON  JOHN  LYNDE 

Professor  of  Physics  in  Macdonald  College,  McGill 
University 

jij  pages,  ill.,  i2mo,  $1.25 

This  book  covers  the  ground  usually  covered  by  ele- 
mentary text-books  in  Physics,  but  it  differs  from  them 
in  that  the  illustrative  examples  are  taken  largely  from 
the  home,  and  that  the  application  of  principles  is  made 
to  home  appliances  with  which  the  student  is  already  more 
or  less  acquainted.  The  tack  lifter  is  a  lever,  the  meat 
chopper  a  screw;  the  vacuum  cleaner  and  the  fire  ex- 
tinguisher illustrate  mechanics  in  gases;  the  draft  in  the 
range,  the  fireless  cooker,  the  refrigerator  and  the  double 
boiler  all  illustrate  vital  principles  of  heat.  These  and 
countless  other  instances  serve  to  show  how  well  this  text 
is  adapted  to  use  in  girls'  classes.  The  student  not  only 
learns  the  principles  of  physics  but  she  grasps  their  true 
relation  to  her  own  wider  interests. 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

Publishers         64-66  Fifth  Avenue         New  York 


Successful  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them 
By  CHARLES  L.  WHITE 

^20  pages.  III.,  8vo,  $2.00 

The  average  prospective  house-owner  is  not  well  informed  re- 
garding the  many  preliminary  steps  which  he  has  to  take  and 
problems  which  he  has  to  meet.  The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to 
give  an  authoritative,  comprehensive  treatment  of  these  problems 
of  house-building  from  the  standpoint  of  the  house-owner.  The 
choosing  of  the  site,  the  preliminaries  with  the  architect  and  con- 
tractor, the  legal  documents  involved,  planning  the  rooms,  the 
actual  building  processes,  the  importance  of  a  good  roof,  plumb- 
ing that  is  sanitary,  sewage  disposal  in  the  country,  efficient  iieat- 
ing  methods,  plastering,  lighting,  handy  household  devices  and 
appliances  —  these  are  some  of  the  topics,  and  the  illustrations 
are  equally  helpful  and  practical.  This  is  a  really  indispensable 
book  to  one  about  to  build. 


The  Care  of  a  House 

By  T.  M.  CLARK 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects 

28 J  pages.  III.,  i2mo,  $/.jo     (^Stand.  Lib.)  ,^0 

A  volume  of  suggestions  to  householders,  housekeepers,  land- 
lords, tenants  and  others,  for  the  economical  and  efficient  care  of 
dwelling  houses.  The  writer  makes  a  simple  explanation  of  the 
structure  of  a  modern  house,  and  of  the  appliances  which  are  at- 
tached to  it,  with  descriptions  of  the  disorders  to  which  they  are 
subject,  and  of  the  methods  of  preventing  and  curing  such  dis- 
orders. Especially  valuable  are  the  chapters  on  the  heating  and 
plumbing  systems. 

THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PubliBhers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  Tork 


1  ':383"2 

Furniture  of  the  Olden  Time 

By  FRANCES  C.  MORSE 

Illustrated,  $3.00 

"The  book  is  a  very  complete  presentation  of  the  best  old 
fashions  in  furniture  —  chests,  dressing-tables,  bureaus,  cup- 
boards, sideboards,  desks,  chairs,  settees  and  sofas  of  all  sorts, 
tables,  looking-glasses,,  musical  instruments,  fires,  and  lights." 

—  The  Outlook. 

"The  book  excels  others  of  its  kind  through  its  orderly 
arrangement,  the  definiteness  and  precision  of  its  accounts  of  the 
furniture  in  vogue  during  successive  generations,  the  care  and 
exactness  of  its  descriptions  of  typical  pieces,  and  its  well-chosen 
illustrations."  —  Boston  Herald. 

"  Miss  Morse  writes  with  enthusiasm,  but  always  with  clear- 
ness. She  puts  in  little  side  lights  which  show  the  habits  of 
society  in  those  days,  and  any  one  who  thinks  that  her  book 
must,  of  necessity,  be  dull  and  tedious  is  greatly  mistaken.  A 
special  word  of  praise  should  go  to  the  illustrations,  which  are 
printed  in  admirable  style.  There  are  scores  of  them,  too,  and 
they  supplement  the  text  in  a  most  helpful  way." 

—  Cleveland  Leader. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  Tork 


CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
University  of  California,  San  Diego 

DATE  DUE 


IWH  1  (J  lyHU 


APRri!n|Ki 

1^  4  198S 


\ 


CI  39 


UCSD  Libr. 


lONAL  LIBRARY  FAC1UTY 


A    000  718  197     7 


I* 


/         1^ 


LIBRy 


